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THE LITERARY CRITICISM 
OF PIERRE BAYLE 



By 



HORATIO E. SMITH 



A DISSERTATION 

submitted to the board of university studies of the 
Johns Hopkins University in conformity with the 
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 



THE LITERARY CRITICISM 
OF PIERK . BAYLE 



By 
HORATIO E. SMITH 



A DISSERTATION 

submitted to the board of university studies of the 
Johns Hopkins University in conformity with the 
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 



ALBANY, N. Y. 
THE BRANDOW PRINTING CO. 
1912 



^^^'J' 



Gilt 
OCT 15 U;;; 



TO MY MOTHER. 



PREFACE 
SCOPE OF THE PRESENT STUDY 

No examination, in any sense complete, has ever been made 
of the literary criticism of Pierre Bayle. Histories of literature 
give him only passing mention and make hardly any comment 
on the significance of his opinions about letters. The study of 
Betz, Pierre Bayle und die 'Nouvelles de la Republique desf 
Lettres/ takes up the question at more length and gives an 
excellent general estimate of Bayle as a literary critic. But 
Betz' treatment is almost exclusively restricted to a single one 
of the numerous products of Bayle's pen, and since he discusses 
the several different aspects of the Nouvelles, his analysis of 
Bayle's literary criteria is by no means detailed. Although 
Lenient, in his Etude stir Bayle, makes some just and accurate 
comments in the section which he devotes to the Scepticisme 
Litteraire of the Rotterdam free-thinker, these, too, are brief 
and incomplete. The book on Pierre Bayle by Cazes contains 
a series of selections from Bayle's works, and one group of 
these has been chosen to illustrate the distinctive qualities of 
his literary criticism. But Cazes, in his own discussion, pays 
no attention to these qualities. In the various essays that have 
been written on Bayle, the remarks concerning his literary criti- 
cism are decidedly meagre. 

It is the purpose of the present study to investigate this 
particular feature of his activity, to establish with whatever 
documentary evidence can be collected the exact character of 
Bayle's attitude toward literature. He does not give any formal 
treatment of literary subjects, and none of his works may be 
termed, in any technical sense, literary. Yet, scattered through 
the nine folio volumes there are manifold remarks that have 
a more or less direct bearing on books and authors. Bayle was 
not primarily a man of letters, but since his interest in this field 
was considerable, and since he occupies an important place in 
the history of French thought, and plays a significant role in 



6 Preface 

the intellectual development of Europe, it seems worth while 
to try to determine accurately the nature and value of his 
expressed opinions on literature. To do so is the aim of this 
study.^ 

^ Three less important chapters of the dissertation as submitted to 
the Johns Hopkins University are not included in the work as here 
presented. The omitted sections are : an introductory chapter entitled : 
Life of Bayle; his general characteristics as thinker and man, andl two 
chapters of Part I, entitled : Panegyrics, Libels, Letters, etc., and Indi- 
vidual Authors. Of these last two, part of the first has been incor- 
porated in the chapter on History. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

Preface: Scope of the present study 5 

Part I: Bayle's Criticism as applied to: 

Books and Authors I 9 

Fiction II 16 

Poetry Ill 22 

Drama IV 28 

Oratory V 34 

History VI 39 

Scholarship VII 63 

Style VIII 78 

Ancients and Moderns IX 88 

Part II: The Precepts which Bayle advocates in Criticism. 

The Function of the Critic X 95 

Part III: Conclusion. 

Summary of Bayle's Opinions; his rank and character- 
istics as a critic XI 113 

Influence of Bayle XII 126 

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . .133 

Vita 136 



I 

BOOKS AND AUTHORS^ 

A few remarks that Bayle advances in regard to the charac- 
teristics of authors, as to what they are and what they should 
be, suggest the general attitude which he takes towards the 
profession of authorship. It therefore seems worth while to 
mention these here before proceeding to an outline of his 
opinions concerning particular genres, concerning the various 
expressions of the writer's activity. 

Values in the Republic of Letters are not judged by money 
standards. Writers should be impelled by higher motives than 
a mere desire for gain. Consequently the mercenary spirit of 
many authors reflects much discredit upon their kind. 

C'est ce qui fait un grand tort aux muses, c'est ce qui les prive de la 
gloire dont elles devraient jouir d'inspirer a leurs sectateurs un veritable 
desinteressement, et un genereux mepris des richesses et des recompenses 
publiques. lis ressemblent aux autres hommes, dit-on, ils ne sont pas 
moins sujets que les autres a I'ambition et a I'avarice, les deux maladies 
populaires du coeur humain.^ 

These grasping writers have in view not solely the money; 
they imagine that the rewards they may reap will not only be 
desirable as such, but will add to their reputation and stamp 
them as great authors. But this is nonsense. A good book is 
good, even though the author may have died of starvation, and 
a bad book is not redeemed by the fact that its composer was a 
marquis or a millionaire. A writer who, scorning wealth and 
devoting all his energy to the composition of good books, dies 
poor, has earned a title of nobility in the Republic of Letters.^ 
Bayle advocates moderate compensation for men of letters : 
liberal pay inclines them to idleness, for they feel secure in their 
opulence; scanty pay inclines them to hasten their productions 

^ For the abbreviations used in the foot-notes of this and the following 
chapters cf. infra, p. 133, notes i and 2. 
^D, VIL 477, Haillan, M. 
^ Ihid. Bayle goes on to commend the disinterestedness of Descartes. 



lo The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

and to give them to the public in a form far from perfect — ^the 
less each piece brings in, the more of these they must write.* 

Carelessness and haste in writing are to be avoided ; an author 
should resist the temptation to see himself continually in print. 
He should not begin publishing too early in life, and he should 
compose a pas comptes.^ The number of excellent writers would 
be larger if those who have acquired a certain reputation by 
their productions should content themselves with publishing only 
one work in every four years. But they do not do this ; they go 
ahead rapidly and depend too much on the fame already 
acquired.^ A similar abuse occurs in the case of authors who 
seek to publish what they have written in their early days. It 

*D. XII. 576, Ronsard, K. Though it may be better to have these 
mediocre works than none at all, the public may be more benefited when 
the author is too poor than when he is too rich. Cf. Gigas, pp. 59-63. 

For passing remarks against the mercenary spirit of authors cf : D. V. 
395, Dassouci, F; D. VI. 129, Elizabeth, O; D. VIII. 564, Kirstenius, B; 
D. XIII. 305, Simonide (2), N; cf. also O. D. I. 610, xii; D. V. 432, 
Decius, D; D. I. iii, Accarisi, A: Bayle deplores the mercenary spirit 
of many professors. 

When authors are needy and have to support large families Bayle is 
inclined to excuse their efforts to secure patrons. D. XII. 461, Rangouze, 
A; cf. O. D. I. 476, ix. 

For a vigorous objection to the introduction of money standards in the 
Republic of Letters cf . D. I. 386-7, Alciat, G : " Quand vous pretendez 
que, si Ton vous donne une plus grosse pension pour ce que vous direz 
en chaire, c'est une preuve qu'on vous estime un plus grand predicateur 
ou un plus savant professeur, ne jugez-vous pas de votre metier comme 
Ton juge de celui d'un cordonnier ou d'un chapeUer? Cela est fort propre 
a decrier les sciences et a faire mepriser ceux qui les professent; . . . 
C'est assurement mettre son erudition a I'encan, et faire savoir au public 
qu'on ne se livrera qu'au plus offrant et dernier encherisseur." 

It is a shame to decry such sciences as physics and mathematics because 
they do not enrich their devotees. O. D. I. 697, viii; cf. also D. II. 25, 
Anaxagoras, A : " Voila le gout d'une infinite de gens : ils condamnent 
toutes les occupations qui ne servent pas a faire fortune." Apropos of 
philosophers. Note the reference here to D. XV. 236, Projet de ce Diet. 

^ D. X. 2,z7, Marsus, B. Cf. the ref. here to D. XV. 102, Zuerius, B. 

'D. VI. 523, Forbes (3), B. Cf. O. D. II. 161. Avis au Lecteur for the 
Nouvelles Lettres . . . de VHistoire du Calvinisme. Bayle, referring 
to his own work, says a writer is apt to spend all his energies on his first 
book and if he tries to write again on the same subject he makes many 
repetitions of what has already been said, and perhaps relies too much on 
the reputation that the first work may have made for him. 



Books and Authors ii 

is judicious indeed for them to wait until they have acquired 
a solid reputation, and when they have done so they may venture 
with a certain degree of safety to bring forth their youthful 
efforts.'' But they must not build too much on their reputation 
and too little on the merits of such compositions.® 

Bayle deplores the vanity of men of letters who cry out 
against the ingratitude of the public. 

Ce defaut est presque une maladie epidemique dans la republique des 
lettres: il n'y a guere d'auteurs qui ne se plaignent de I'ingratitude de 
leur siecle. Ceux qii'on appelle beaux-esprits se signalent par dessus 
les autres dans cette espece de plainte. II leur semble que ce ne serait 
pas se donner des airs, que de convenir que la fortune les a regardes 
d'un bon oeil. On dirait qu'ils craignent que s'ils paraissaient contens 
de ses faveurs, le public ne prit cela pour un aveu qu'ils sont sans 
merite; car il y a un lieu commun fort ancien qui nous apprend qu'elle 
est aveugle, et qu'elle choisit tres-mal les objets de son amour. . . . 
Ainsi tous ces lieux communs que nos beaux-esprits, et tant d'autres 
ecrivains, poussent contre la Fortune, sont dans le vrai un pompeux 
eloge des grandes et des belles qualites dont ils s'imaginent etre remplis. 
II y a done la-dedans un peu trop de vanite.® 



'' Bayle states that in general the excellence of a writer's production 
varies directly according to his experience: D. XII. 174, Plotin, E. But 
he is inclined to admit exceptions to this, and elsewhere cites La Bruyere 
— though indeed in an argument de circonstance — as an example of an 
author whose coup d'essai was a masterpiece: O. D. II. 643; cf. D'. V. 
353, Daille, H. 

* D. XIV. 130-1, Thomaeus, D, Apropos of a savant. 

There are various references to the superabundance of books in Bayle's 
own day. Cf. O. D. I. 388, iii : "jamais le maladie de faire des Livres 
n'a ete plus generale que dans ce siecle ... si Ton pent croire que 
la demangeaison de faire des Livres est une fievre continue avec des 
redoublemens. Ton pent croire aussi que la generation presente s'est 
rencontree dans le retour de I'acces." Cf. O. D. L 383, i; O. D. I. 715. 

Cf.. also O. D. I. 745 i: Bayle refers to the multitude of books which 
are being published. One reason for this torrent de livres is that when 
a man gets hold of some small idea he feels the need of writing a book 
around it so that he may present it to the public. 

Cf. also O. D. IV. 529, iv : " J'ai oui dire a des gens qui en avoient 
senti quelque chose, qu'il n'y avoit rien de plus chargeant que I'envie de 
se faire imprimer, et que des le moment qu'on a les matieres toutes 
pretes, on se fait un pretexte de batir, si on ne le trouve pas tout fait." 

"D. XI. 333-4, Pays, H. Bayle refers to Balzac as an example of this 
type of author. Balzac had plenty of the comforts of life, yet he was 
always complaining of fortune. Certainly he was not over-modest. 



1 2 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

Often enough it is the authors who are guilty of ingratitude, 
not the pubHc. Bayle makes one or two other remarks concern- 
ing the high opinion which authors have of their own produc- 
tions.io 

The writing of books is not a very practical business, and 
authors are not apt to be men who would succeed in the affairs 
of every-day life. It often happens that a man who is good 
at writing books is good at nothing else; outside of his study 
he is a dunce.^^ And certainly a hel-esprit, who devotes his 
energies to the polishing of a sonnet, is not likely to prove 
a splendid financier, however he may prosper in Love.^^ 

So much then for the characteristics of men of Letters, and 
especially their faults. Evidently Bayle sets a high standard 
for the citizens of this Republic of Letters. Their calling is 
a dignified one, and they are not to debase it by seeking mere 
material rewards, nor by composing hurriedly and carelessly, 
nor by giving way to their vanity. They are outside of the 
ordinary world of affairs, and, in a measure, above it.^^ 



" Cf. D. V. 555, Dolet, C : Bayle remarks on the indignation of a 
savant when another writer takes up the lance to defend some particular 
cause which he, the first man, believes he has already successfully dis- 
puted. Cf . D. VII. 568, Heloise, R ; cf . also O. D. I. 477, i : "On fait 
ordinairement un miserable personnage, lorsqu'on parle soi-meme de ses 
Ecrits." Bayle is referring to his own Reponse ... a I' Avis sur 
ce qu'il a dit en faveur du P. Malehranche. 

" O. D. I. L. 140, xciv : " Quand vous aurez plus d'experience, et que 
vous aurez connu personnellement plus de personnes celebres par leurs 
ecrits, vous verrez que ce n'est pas si grande chose que de composer un 
bon livre, et qu'il n'y a souvent rien de si sot ni de plus incapable d'une 
affaire hors du cabinet qu'un bon Auteur," Cf. D. III. 219, Beaucaire, 
G; D. III. 497, Boccalin, B; D. IV. 436, Carbon, A; O. D. I. 284, iv; 
O. D. I. L. 146: "Autre chose est d'ecrire, autre chose est d'agir," etc. 

"D. XL 334, Pays, H. 

" For other remarks on authors, their ways and characteristics, cf : 

On Plagiarists : O. D. I. 307 iv : " des gens dont la race ne perit point 
parmi les Auteurs, quoi qu'on les expose souvent a I'infamie publique." 
D. V. 561, Donaldson, B; D. VI. 67, Duaren, H; D. VI. 165, Ephore, 
C; Gigas, p. 68. 

On the contradictions of Authors: O. D. II. 166-184, Lettres II, III. 
In the Nouvelles Lettres Critiques sur FHistoire du Calvinisme. The 
emphasis is wholly on the contradictions which come up in controversial 
and especially religious-controversial writings. Bayle tabulates the causes 
of such contradictions. He cites Cicero as an example, in maintaining 



Books and Authors 13 

There is some discussion of the question as to whether an 
author is revealed in his work. Bayle would perhaps grant that 
the general characteristics of authors as a class are evident 
enough in their writings. But at any rate he is not inclined 
to think that the intimate personality of the individual may be 
discovered. In the first place an author is apt not to be frank 
enough to make himself known to the public as he really is. 
Although it is claimed that a writer paints himself in his books, 
it is certain that he does not give a faithful portrait. He dis- 
guises himself as he may see fit, and whoever would take the 
mask for the real man would be much deceived. Even the 
Letters of an author are not trustworthy; they may come 
nearer to the truth than other productions, 

mais apres tout, on n'ecrit pas aux gens tout ce que Ton pense; on 
auroit trop de honte de se montrer a eux tel qu'on est, et trop de peur 
de se faire des ennemis par son ingenuite.^* 

It is also true that what an author writes may be merely a 
jeu d'esprit, and for this reason not reflect in any way the real 
qualities of the composer. It is quite possible for a man of 
great moral excellence to write verses which abound in obsceni- 
ties. He may introduce saletes not because they have any 
attraction for him as such, but because they offer a good oppor- 



that one of the causes is flattery; he points out how Cicero praises Caesar 
in one case and blames him in another. 

Of the frequent obscurity of the ancestors and descendants of the 
heroes of the Republic of Letters: D. VII. 69, Gentilis (3), B. 

Cf. also the reference to " cette humeur bizarre et capricieuse que Ton 
voit assez souvent dans les artistes les plus consommes." Apropos of 
Apelles: D. II. 165, Apelles, D. Cf. D. II. 183, Apollodore (2), C. 

^* O. D. I. 23. Apropos of the Letters of Gui Patin, which, Bayle says, 
are an exception to the rule and which do reveal the man clearly. 

Cf. D. VIII. 221, Hortensius (2), H: Bayle comments on the unreliabil- 
ity of remarks on other men which authors make in their published 
works, an unreliability due to the author's unwillingness to disclose his 
real sentiments. In this case, however, he is inclined to admit that 
authors speak frankly in letters to their friends. Cf. the ref. given here 
to D. VII. 283, Grotius (2), M. 

Cf. O. D. III. 6, Pref. de la I^. Ed. des Pensees Diverses, etc : " Cet 
air libre que Ton se donne quand on ecrit a un Ami, mais non pas quand 
on veut se faire imprimer. . . . Ceux qui ecrivent dans la vue de 
pubHer leurs pensees s'accommodent au tems, et trahissent en mille 
rencontres le jugement qu'ils forment des choses," etc. 



14 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

tunity for him to give play to his ingenuity and earn the 
applause of those who find a particular charm, a particular sel, 
in such subjects.^^ Similarly in fiction the character of a novel 
hardly throws any light on the character of the individual who 
composes it; here again we have an author exercising his in- 
telligence and imagination, without putting his personality into 
the composition. Many of the best romans are being written 
by women, but there is no reason to believe that they are telling 
their own love stories, or that they approve the extremely 
amorous tendencies of their heroines. Indeed it is certain that 
the only object is to display their ability, their art in the depict- 
ing of character and passion.^^ Finally it is true that a writer 
whose own morals are exceedingly flimsy may express in his 
books the noblest sentiments of virtue and decency.^^ This 
is another case where it would be nonsense to judge from an 
author's compositions what kind of a man he really is.^^ 

" D. XIV. 291, Vayer, D. Bayle adds several other remarks on this 
question of whether obscenities in a poem indicate the moral perversity 
of the poet. There are some poets, like Catullus, Ovid and Martial, in 
whose case the obscenities come from the natural inclination of the writers 
to such wickedness — there is no excuse for these. But Bayle's general 
attitude is the one noted in the text. 

Cf. D. XIV. 425, Virgile, A: It is quite possible for poets, editors of 
poetical texts, etc. to acquire a viewpoint from which they may regard 
such dangerous objects with impunity, since their attitude is merely 
impersonal and professional ; cf. D. XIII. 81, Sanchez, C. Cf. D. XIV. 
292, Vayer, D: Some writers are all the more careful in avoiding 
obscenities, lest any slip should justify the reports which are current as 
to their bad moral character. Cf. D. X. 319, Marot, H: There is no 
reason why a poet who was a rascal should not translate well the Psalms 
of David, just as there is no reason why the good statue of a wicked 
sculptor should have no place in a church. 

"D. XIV. 424, Virgile, A. 

" D. XIV. 290, Vayer, D. Two cases are possible : a rascal may 
write virtuously, or a man of excellent moral worth may write books 
that are far from edifying. Bayle cites Sallust and Clodius, on the 
authority of Le pere Lemoine ; Discours de I'Histoire, and Cicero: Orat. 
de Haruspicum Responsis, respectively, as examples of men of moeurs 
dereglees whose writings were serious and admirable. Cf. O. D. III. 87, 
cxxxv ; Gigas, 42. 

" On this question as to whether an individual is reflected in his book 
cf. O. D. I. 259: " C'est une grande illusion que de juger de Tame d'un 
homme par ses Ecrits." — apropos of a man who wrote a vigorous defense 
of polygamy but had taken unto himself not even a single wife. 



Books and Authors 15 

In a word authorship does not ever mean to Bayle an emi- 
nently personal thing; it is almost always an objective affair 
in which the brains and imagination of the man are concerned, 
but hardly his real self. Bayle's comments on the various kinds 
of literature will bring out the fact that this attitude is a 
constant one, that he rarely looks at a book as an expression 
of a writer's whole individuality, but as an indication of his 
caliber as impersonal artist or thinker. 



II 

FICTION 

Occasional references to works of fiction indicate that Bayle 
takes a certain interest in this kind of literature. He mentions 
the writings of Mile, de Scude'ry/ La Princesse de devest 
Telemaque,^ Francion,^ the Roman de la Rose,^ Daphnis et 
Chloe;^ and various other productions.'^ Novels awaken his 
curiosity and often they are mentioned as diverting.® From time 
to time his interest prompts a critical remark, but there are few 
cases where Bayle devotes himself to the task of analysing care- 
fully the merits of a novel, and apparently he hardly thinks such 
an effort worth while; with the exception of one or two short 
reviews dealing with particular romans^ the observations which 
he makes on fiction are introduced apropos of some other matter. 

When Bayle does indulge in criticism, the general character 
of his remarks shows what features attract him. He does not 
ask whether a novel has any value as an appeal to the imagina- 

^D. IV. 183, Brutus; D. XI. 329, Pays; O. D. I. L. 15, 75-6, 125, Ixxx. 
In the first and fourth of these references the Clelie is attributed to M. 
de Scudery. 

^ O. D. I. L. 92, 98, Ixiv, loi, Ixvii. 

'D. XII. 75, Pygmalion. 

*0. D. I. 632. 

'^D. VII. 563, Heloise, F. 

*D. IX. 352, Longus. 

' O. D. I. L. 49 : " On m'a dit qu'il y a un Roman nouveau intitule 
* la Citerie,' ou * TAsterie ' . . . Je croi qu'il est de la fagon de 
Mademoiselle de la Roche, qui a compose I'Arioviste autre Roman ;" 81 : 
" II y a une maniere de Roman qu'on appelle I'Histoire des Sevarambes ;" 
125, Ixxx: " M. de Vaumoriere vient de donner au public un Roman en 
quatre petits volumes intitule 'Adelaide de Champagne,' et Mademoiselle 
Bernard, jeune fille de Roiien, agee de 17 ans et de la Religion, fait 
aussi un Roman intitule 'Frideric de Sicile';" 166, cxviii : " II y a une 
Dame a Paris nommee Daunoi qui compose plusieurs Romans ingeni- 
eux. ..." 

'D. XL 40, Navarre; O. D. I. L. 114; O. D. IV. 528, iii; 574, xxxii. 

••O. D. I. 157, viii; 195, iv; 651, i. 



Fiction 1 7 

tion, any merit as an idealization. It is natural enough that 
the positive, unromantic Bayle should not be aroused by the 
coloring of fiction, especially in view of the inferiority of most 
of the novels which he had a chance to peruse. What occupies 
him is fact. Beyond one or two incidental remarks on the proper 
subjects for novels, the questions he considers are: whether a 
novel is true to life, whether it introduces a combination of 
romance and history, whether its practical effect on the reader 
is moral or otherwise. 

The natural subject for a novel is love; the romancers have 
set that up for themselves as a law.^^ But it is the courtship 
alone that is to be related, for to write of married life is absurd. 
Longus may be criticised in this regard.^^ Bayle does not believe 
that novelists will again introduce the pastoral romance; the 
pastoral will henceforth belong to poets alone. ^^ 

In order to maintain the illusion of the reader there should be 
vraisemblance. The true pleasure of fiction comes when the 
reader persuades himself that he is learning of something which 
actually happened. If incongruous and improbable elements are 
introduced the spell is broken and he realizes that it is only a 
story after all.^^ 

The rules of probability are upset by the excessive prudery 
which romancers attribute to their heroines. 

La vertu va beaucoup plus loin en ce pay-la, que dans notre monde: 
c'est apparemment une des principales raisons qui ont fait qu'on s'est 
degoute de cette sorte d'Ouvrages.^* 

The seventeenth century writers are guilty in this regard. Mile, 
de Scudery and her contemporaries would represent a heroine 
as resisting too valiantly and too successfully the seductions of 
a lover who has kidnapped her. These novelists observe the 
demands of vraisemblance when they portray a heroine as strug- 
gling at the start against such abduction, for of course she 
realizes that she will be compromised. But a long-continued 

"D. XL 41, Navarre, note (i). 

^ D. IX, 355, Longus, B : " Une heroine de roman grosse et accouchee 
est un etrange personnage." Note that in his comments here Bayle merely 
echoes and enlarges on the opinion of Huet. Elsewhere he advances the 
same statement independently: D. VII. 552, Heliodore. 

"O. D. L 651. 

"O. D. L L. 142, xcvi; cf. O. D. 1. 650, i. 

"O. D. L 195, iv. 



1 8 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

resistance is not likely, and to hold that a lover would undertake 
such a hazardous affair without being reasonably sure of suc- 
cess is absurd. Furthermore it is nonsense to picture a lover 
sueing ardently for the hand of a lady who has already 
been kidnapped by rivals; it is not probable that her char- 
acter is above reproach. Bayle's criticisms are doubtless tinged 
by the fact that his conception of love is far from romantic.^^ 

Authors have finally recognized this lack of probability in 
their stories and have begun to improve matters. The novel 
entitled Les Dames Galantes ou la Confidence reciproque shows 
that a change is taking place. Here two women of easy morals 
relate to each other their adventures with a frankness that is 
refreshing.^* Other contemporary novels indicate the same 
regard for truth, the same freedom from the prudery which 
had characterized the genre. The heroines in Ariane act like 
ordinary women of the time. La Duchesse de Montpensier and 
the novels of Mile, des Jardins show tliat attention is being paid 
to writing stories which shall be natural and probable.^"^ 

Yet Bayle does not dwell on the need for vraisemblance with 
any particular insistence. He believes it desirable and once or 
twice, as has been noted, he speaks with a momentary vigor 
on the subject. But apparently he does not think it worth 
while to lay down many hard and fast rules in regard to a kind 
of literature which at best has no very serious purpose and no 
particular claims to consideration. The tales of fiction are idle, 

"D. VII. 530, Helene, E. Cf. D. VI. 312, Etampes, L; D. VII. 390, 
Guise, sub-note 32; D. VII. 535, Helene, L; D. IX. 355, Longus, C, 
(where the unnatural virtue of heroes is blamed); O. D. I. 650, i; 
O. D. I. 735 ; O. D. Ill, 75, cxii. 

O. D. II. 303-8, Letter XXI of the Nouvelles Lettres Critiques sur 
I'Histoire du Calvinisme. This also contains a criticism of the excessive 
and improbable virtue of the characters of fiction. This letter is undoubt- 
edly written by Bayle, but he represents it as written by a certain M. 
Crisante, who is disputing with him about the marriage of the clergy, 
and who advances these remarks on vraisemhlance in connection with 
one of his arguments. The single point made by M. Crisante is the one 
noted above as Bayle's own : fiction writers are to be censured for endow- 
ing their heroes and heroines with unheard-of prudery. Among other 
novels criticised for lack of vraisemhlance in this particular is La Prin- 
cesse de Cleves. 

"O. D. L 195, iv. 

" O. D. II. 323. Cf . O. D. I. L. 59. 



Fiction 19 

grotesque, tiresome, decidedly inferior to writings in which facts 
alone are dealt with and in which there is no attempt to embroider 
the truth. ^® One must not ask much of such stories. Many 
references to the anachronisms, extravagances and chimerical 
adventures found in romans indicate that Bayle looks on these 
as typical.^^ He does not expect that the characters of a novel 
be made subject to the restrictions of ordinary existence; it is 
a simple matter, he says, to credit them with this or that remark- 
able quality according to the exigencies of the case: 

lorsqu'on se fait des personnages de Timagination ... on leur fait 
comprendre tout ce que Ton veut; on nage en pleine mer, on dispose a 
sa fantaisie de leur cceur et de leur esprit. On fait toutes ces choses 
bien plus aisement que la Nature ne les produit dans des sujets tres 
reels.'"' 

The practice of mingling history and fiction is prevalent in 
Bayle's time. Such a compound is frequent in court memoirs, 
and in romances which purport to reveal the secret loves of 
some member of royalty. The authors and publishers under- 
stand that such tales are more popular when they are supposed 
to have a foundation in fact, hence they do their utmost to 
persuade the reader that their books contain an element of 
truth.2i 

The custom is unpardonable.^^ A romancer must not take 
historical facts as a basis for his tale and embellish them as 
may happen to suit the whim of his imagination; he must not 

'«D. I. 329, Aimon; D. VIII. 486-7, Junius, F; D. XL 41, Navarre; 
O. D. I. L. 49; O. D. III. 708; O. D. IV. 729, clxxxiv. 

''D. IV. 569, Castille, A; D. V. 229, Claude, G; D. V. 234, Cleonyme, 
B; D. V. 393, Dassouci, D; D. VI. 280, Esope, C; D. VI. 498, Flora, F; 
D. VII. 405, Guise; D. XI. 255, Origene, E; D. XII. 150, Pytheas, C; 
D. XII. 478, Rauber, D; D. XIII. 7, Sadeur; O. D. I. 426; O. D. II. 
651; O. D. III. 639, Ixix. 

Cf . D. VII. 323, Guevara, B : " Ceux-ci (writers of romans) ne trompent 
personne; car ils ne demandent pas qu'on prenne pour vrai tout ce qu'ils 
debitent; ils n'aspirent qu'a la gloire de faire approuver leurs fictions 
comme des choses ingenieusement forgees; . . ." 

^°0. D. I. 547. Cf. D. XV. 274, Eclaircissement sur les Aihees, Section 
IX; O. D. I. 157. 

=^D. XL 152, Nidhard, C. 

^Cf. D. XIII. 273, Sforce (3), E: a reference to novelists who write 
"tant de mauvais ecrits qui paraissent tous les jours, oii Ton ente sur 
les faits reels cent fables et cent chimeres." 



20 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

give his characters the names of historical personnages and 
then make them act according to the requirements of his inven- 
tion. By this pernicious habit the romancers poison even the 
most recent facts of history, as in the case of the story which 
claims to relate the life and death of Kara Mustapha, Grand 
Vizier of Turkey, who besieged Vienna in 1683.^^ Bayle's ire 
is aroused by the thought that a writer of fiction should trifle 
with such a subject. His interest in facts and his contempt for 
petites pieces de galanterie are brought out here.^* It is impor- 
tant, he says, that this historical event should be understood, 
that the circumstances should be well known; a novelist has no 
business to dabble with such an affair and confuse it by his 
fictions. Moreover it is disgraceful to attribute to royal char- 
acters, still in active life^ — even if they are Turks — gallantries 
of such compromising nature as this particular writer introduces. 
It would be best that authors devote themselves either wholly 
to fiction or wholly to history. Or at least, if they do introduce 
history into a romance, they should make it clear what is fact 
and what is not.^^ Bayle commends the practice of Mile, des 
Jardins in stating at the outset that the story she is to relate 
is merely a product of her imagination.^* 

The moral effect of novels is not to be disregarded. Fictitioiis 
accounts of love-affairs of doubtful character may be harmful 
in the extreme,^^ and the delicacy and subtlety of some of the 
recent fiction make it all the more pernicious, for the poison 

^ O. D. I. 157, viii. The roman is entided : Cara Mustapha Grand 
Visir. Histoire contenant son elevation, ses amours dans le Serail, ses 
divers emplois, le vrai sujet qui lui a fait entre prendre le Siege de Vienne, 
et les particularitez de sa mort. The author writes that a love affair of 
the Grand Vizier was the cause of the war. 

^ Bayle is inconsistent once or twice, stating that the element of history 
in a particular novel interests him. Facts please him so that perhaps 
he forgets for a moment the mistake of presenting them in such a form. 
Cf. O. D. I. L. 15, 22-3; O. D. I. 405. 

^'D. XI. 152, Nidhard, C. Cf. D. XII. 18, Pheron, B ; O. D. I. 381, 
vi ; O. D. I. 406, i ; O. D. III. 737. 

^D. VIII. 332-3, Jardins, A. And yet even this lady is to be blamed, 
says Bayle, for the deplorable way in which she confuses fact and fiction. 
Note that he gives Mile, des Jardins the credit for bringing into fashion 
the petites historiettes galantes which succeeded such novels as the Cleo- 
pdtre and the Cyrus. 

"O. D. III. 649-50. Cf. O. D. IV. 186: "les Romans ... les 



Fiction 21 

is disguised by a sugar coating.^® On the other hand, a novel 
may exert a beneficial influence, and the attempt to point a 
moral is praiseworthy.^^ It will not do to distort historical facts 
in this effort, for a combination of history and romance in 
which a familiar character is connected with events which the 
reader knows never happened has little power to convince him.^^ 
But a roman which twists the facts of everyday existence and 
represents a heroine as endowed with superhuman virtue is less 
reprehensible than one which follows unpleasant realities too 
strictly.^^ 

This inconsistency — for Bayle has dwelt elsewhere, as has 
been noted, on the need of not endowing heroines with unusual 
virtue — is characteristic of his general attitude towards fiction. 
Another contradiction, which has been referred to, is that on 
several occasions he protests vigorously against introducing 
history into fiction, but declares in other places, though only 
in passing, that what attracts him in certain novels is the element 
of chronicled fact.^^ In a word, Bayle is not free from contra- 
dictions on the two points which seem to occupy him the most 
in his criticisms of novels. He does not consider this kind of 
literature seriously, and is a little inclined to waver in his views ; 
his opinions lack the definiteness of his criticisms on a genre 
such as history, which he esteems highly. The fact, however, 
that Bayle comments so frequently on fiction in its relation to 
truth lends a certain unity to his remarks. 

Ouvrages de galanterie, qui ne peuvent que corrompre les bonnes moeurs 
des jeunes gens." 

^'O. D. III. 648-9. 

Cf. O. D. I. 650, i. Bayle is speaking of a roman which copies nature 
with some faithfulness and he says : " plusieurs personnes de bon sens 
sont persuadees qu'un Roman tel que celui-ci n'est pas aussi pernicieux 
que les autres, ou Ton voit des gens de Tun et de I'autre sexe qui s'aiment 
le plus galamment et le plus tendrement du monde, sans prejudice de 
la chastete. Cela fait croire aux jeunes personnes que I'amour n'est point 
a craindre, et qu'on peut s'y engager impunement. On s'y engage done 
sur cette esperance et souvent Ton ne s'en tire qu'avec honte. Si Ton 
avoit vu, comme on le voit dans ce Livre, que cette passion fait tomber 
dans les infidelitez les plus fletrissantes, peut-etre qu'on s'en seroit defie." 

'' O. D. I. 381, vi. 

'' O. D. 1. 406, i. 

"'D. VIII. 156-7, Hypsipyle, C. Cf. D. VI. 339, Eve, L. 

^^ Cf . supra, p. 20, note 24. 



Ill 

POETRY 

The fact that Bayle does not have a very high esteem for 
poetry may be gathered from the sHghting remarks which he 
makes about writers of verse^ as a class. They are jealous,^ 
frequently impecunious,^ inclined to exaggerate their poverty 
in order to get help from their patrons,^ and given to flattery.* 
They make themselves ridiculous by their importunities ; they 
insist upon reciting their verses to all comers, and they stop at 
every word to discuss details until lines that might otherwise 
be pleasing are utterly spoiled. Bayle thanks Heaven that he 
is not as one of these, and claims that being only a writer of 
prose he is less of a burden to his friends.^ The laments of 
poets must not be taken seriously when they cry out against 



'D. VI. 358, Euripide, K; cf. D. XI. 649, Perse (2) ; ibid. 652, D. 

^D. I. 403, Alcman; D. VII. 117, Gombauld, B; cf. D. XIV. 253-9, 
Tristan (2), B. C. : Railers often exaggerate the poverty of poets, though 
it is indeed great. Bayle suggests that the carelessness and dissipations 
of poets often make them lose what they have. 

^D. III. 319, Benserade, E; D. III. 440, Billaut, B. 

*D. I. 486, Amboise; D. I. 529, Ammonius; D. II. 459, Artavasde 11. 
A; D. III. 125, Barleus, A; D. IX. 340, Lollius, F; O. D. II. 348. 

Cf. D. VI. 51, Drusus (3), C: "un poete qui chante les victoires et 
les triomphes d'un prince, ne renonce a I'hyperbole fabuleuse que lorsqu'il 
n'en a point de besoin. Ceux qui lisent les poesies modernes conviendront 
de ceci, et croiront sans peine que les poetes de la cour d'Auguste etaient 
animes du meme esprit que les poetes du temps present." 

Cf. infra, p. 93, n. 30. 

^ O. D. IV. 538: "En effet un Poete ne marche jamais qu'a cheval: 
un Auteur en prose jamais que sur le Haquenee des Cordeliers. Or il est 
bien plus commode de loger un homme seule, qu'un homme avec son 
cheval, surtout quand on n'a point d'ecurie." 

On the affection of poets for their verses cf. D. IV. 272, Busbec, H; 
D. IV. 596, Catulle, E; D. IX. 381, Lotichius (2), G; D. XL 655, 
Perse (2), F. 



Poetry 23 

their lack of success in love,^ for as a matter of fact the esprit 
of these gentlemen gives them great power over the fair sexJ 
Writing poetry is only a jeu d'esprit. This may be recognized 
whatever subject a poet takes up. How many love verses there 
are in writing which the bard is inspired, not by deep passion, 
but by a wish to exercise his poetic invention !® A poet who is 
only slightly affected by the charms of a lady will strive and 
strain in order tO' give some new turn to his verse and thus 
flatter her and gain applause from his fellows. And there are 
some who indulge in such compositions without being in the 
least in love. A poet may touch upon the most lofty themes of 
religion and yet not be inspired by any divine faith.^ It is 
likely enough that he chooses the subject merely because it gives 
him a chance to show ingenuity, command of language, power 
of literary expression. Another day he is quite as apt to choose 
a subject of a very different nature provided it fits the require- 
ment of the moment. So that lofty sentiments, expressed in 
this way, have no authority. On the other hand, one must not 
censure a poet too severely for introducing remarks which are 
against the principles of religion or morals. Here again he is 
only giving rein to his imagination ; it is not serious.^^ 

'O. D. 11. 332, xii. 

'' O. D. II. 290-1. This was especially true, says Bayle, at the time of 
Marot, when writers of ingenious and gallant poetry were rare, but it 
holds good even in the brilliant seventeenth century. Cf. D. VII. 393, 
Guise, O; O. D. 11. 326. 

® D. IX. 378, Lotichius, F. Bayle states here that he does not think 
a poetic temperament makes a man especially susceptible to love. 

' D. VII. 28, Garasse, I. Cf. O. D. III. 923, sections III and VI. 

^" D. VII. 27, Garasse, I. Cf . supra, p. 14, n. 15, ref . to D. XIV. 291-2, 
Vayer, D. 

On the light, irresponsible character of poetry in general cf. D. II. 39, 
Anaxagoras, F; D. IV. 583, Catius, C; D. VI. 554, Francois, K; D. VIII. 
4, Henault, D ; D. VIII. 444, Jules II. F ; D. V. 246, Colonna : " une de 
ces protestations poetiques, dont il ne faut pas tenir plus de compte que 
des parjures des amans;" O. D. I, 715. 

On the follie$ and extravagances found in poetry cf : D. I. 201, Adam, 
E; D. I. 423, Aleandre, F; D. I. 538, Amphiaraus, C; D. II. 485, Asty- 
anax, B; D. II. 545, Averroes, P; D. III. 409, Beze, S; D. III. ^18, 
Bodin, N; D. V. 169-170, Chrysippe (2), H; D. VIII. 509, Junon, M; 
D. X. 149, Majus, C; D. X. 374, Melampus, H; D. XIV. 65, Teleboes, 
D; O. D. I. L. 87; O. D. III. 18; O. D. III. 343. 

If a poem is avowedly dogmatic in nature, if it advances a definite 



2 4 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

Bayle is impressed by the wholesale fashion in which a poet 
exercises his power of invention. ^^ The imagination is most 
important. Versifiers are in the habit of following the dictates 
of fancy, describing things which they never saw and which 
never existed. Sometimes a poet beHeves himself inspired; he 
has a dream, wakes up with the impression of it still fresh 
and hastens to record what he considers a marvel. But it is 
likely enough that the conception his dream presents is one 
that has been in his mind during the waking hours. There is 
a particular strain on the imagination when it is used so much, 
and a poet should retire from the service of Apollo before his 
inspiration is exhausted and he becomes insipid.^^ 

Poetry then is not a very serious occupation. The poet works 
his imagination hard, exercises his wits, and produces some- 
thing clever. As in the case of fiction, poetry writing is not 
important enough, from Bayle's point of view, to make him think 
it worth while to lay down precepts for the art with any 
insistence. Indeed, it has been noted^^ that he has countenanced 
loose moral and religious ideas in poetry. But on this score he 

philosophical system in verse, the author is as responsible as though he 
wrote in prose. D. IV. 177, Brunus, D. 

"D. IX. 382, Lotichius (2), G. 

" D. V. 426, Daurat, O. " Le service des muses sympathise en bien 
des choses avec le service des dames; il vaut mieux s'en retirer trop 
tot que trop tard." Cf. D. III. 581, Borgarutius, A; a mention of the 
reluctance of poets to retire; O. D. I. 716, 

Elsewhere there is a statement about the retirement from activity of 
authors in general: " chacun devroit . . . se faire des bornes pour 
la production des livres qui est une maniere de generation a quoi tout 
age n'est nullement propre." D. I. 239, Afer, B. 

On the inspiration of poets, cf. O. D. IV. 37: " Vous n'ignorez pas 
quels sont les effets de la fureur poetique. Elle donne des pensees et 
des expressions qui rendent un homme aussi superieur a lui-meme qu'il 
est superieur aux hommes vulgaires dans son etat naturel." Bayle adds: 
" Or vous savez que la prose a sa veine, sa verve, ses enthousiasmes." 
Cf. also D. XI. 336-7, Pays, H: "Les muses d'un homme ne sont jamais 
plus eloquentes, ni plus vives, ni plus fecondes en pensees, que dans de 
semblables occasions." (When he is indignant at an attack.) The pre- 
ceding sentence is worth quoting: "II est permis, je m'assure, de con- 
jecturer qu'un poete, qui a si bien reussi a faire I'eloge du tabac, exprime 
tres-bien dans le meme tome son chagrin centre I'injustice d'un cruel 
arret." 

"Cf. supra, p. 23. 



Poetry 2 5 

is by no means always lenient — at times, in fact, he takes a very 
definite stand on the other side. 

Bayle points out the particularly bad influence which writers 
of verse may have on morals from the fact that they are able 
to give an insidious charm to their remarks by the attractive 
form in which they present them.^* Modern poetry has been 
attacked with justice in the matter of immorality. ^^ Poets pro- 
fane Christianity, even though they do' it unwittingly, by the 
absurd extravagances which are supposed to bring honor to the 
Holy Virgin and the Saints of Paradise, ^'^ and their effrontery 
in other cases is detestable :^^ 

il est certain que les Poetes se sont mis en possession de falsifier tout, 
et que si Ton examinoit a la rigueur les vers de nos Poetes Chretiens 
sur d'autres matieres que sur des sujets pieux, a peine leur resteroit- 
il un Sonnet, une Ode ou une Chanson, qui ne fussent pas infectez 
d'heresie, d'impiete ou de flateries profanes." 

In view of these various remarks it would seem that Bayle's 
attitude towards poetry was one either of indifference or of 
disapproval. While it does not occur to him that the poet's 
power of imagination may be used to serve many noble ends, 
that it may enable him to tell what others only feel, and give 
expression to aspirations which others only dimly conceive, he 
does see the value of this power in one instance. The under- 
standing of poetry and the ability to write poetry are useful to 
a man who sets out to compose a history.^^ A historian who is 

'*D. VII. 27, Garasse, I. 

"D. VII. 441, Hadrien VI. D. 

For short comments against immoralities in poetry, cf. D. II. 436, 
Arodon, A; D. III. 298, Bembus; D. III. 396, Beze; D. VI. 326, Eve; 
D. XIV. 293, Vayer, E; O. D. III. 81, cxxvi. 

On the tendency of poets to be obscene, cf. D. X. 321, Marot, M. 

" O. D. III. 80, cxxv : Furthermore it is not fair to attack the pagan 
religion of the ancients on the basis of the poetic representations of their 
gods, fof the poets lightly attributed to their divinities every vicious and 
ridiculous weakness. Cf. D. VI. loi, Egialee, C. 

Although such poems are deplorable, there may be cases where sacred 
poetry is at least preferable to profane. D. II. 381, Arius, L; D. XIV. 
341, Vegius. 

Bayle objects to introducing profane characters into sacred poetry. 
D. III. 321, Benserade, G. 

"Cf. D. III. 319, Benserade, E; D. VI. 500 Fontarabie, C. 

" O. D. III. 80, cxxv. 

"O. D. III. 191-2. 



2 6 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

fortunate enough to possess this poetic feehng and, at the same 
time, the orator's power of rhetorical expression, may thereby 
add greatly to the dignity and vividness of his writings, though 
he must hold himself in check and not be carried away by 
his poetic vein or by any tendency to declaim.^^ 

. . . si la vigilance de rEcrivain lui fait prevenir la contagion de 
la Poetique eti de la Rhetorique, il pent esperer un grand avantage de la 
connoissance de ces deux arts, puisque d'un cote il se garantit de tout 
ce qui ne conviendroit pas assez a la gravite de I'histoire, et que de 
I'autre il communique a ses narrations les nerfs, la vivacite, la noblesse 
et la majeste qu'elles demandent et sans quoi elles seroient tres- 
defectueuses.^^ 

It is striking for Bayle to concede that the spirit of poetry 
lends dignity to a history,^^ [^ yjg^ ^f ^j^g ^^y j^^ j^^^g branded 
poetry as frivolous. Note that the case in which he does grant 
any merit to this kind of literature is where it has a certain 
relation to matters of fact. 

Bayle does not devote much attention to details of style and 
technique in poetry.^^ He does not set himself up as a judge 
of the merit of poems and often he is content to rely on the 
opinions of others.^* What criticisms do occur are miscel- 
laneous in character. There are one or two references to points 
of versification,^^ occasional comments on the use of a figure or 
fable,^^ on the force or clearness of a particular expression.^^ 
Bayle recognizes that the melody of a poem, the effect on the 



^ Young and immature writers, Bayle adds, are especially apt to lack 
this necessary self-control. 

^ O. D. III. 192, ii. 

""Ci. O. D. III. 191, ii. 

'^ Bayle urges his younger brother when he translates Latin poetry to 
study each expression carefully, to grasp the exact significance of every 
phrase, to understand all references to mythology, to appreciate the 
figures used. But the object here is scholarship, not a sympathetic under- 
standing o£ good poetry. O. D. I. L. 32. 

^D. III. 443, Bion; D. VII. 119-20, Gombauld, E; O. D. I. 442, ii; 
O. D. I. L. 85, Ivi. 

^"'D. VII. 166, Goudimel, F; D. VIII. 380, Jodelle; O. D. I. L. 39- 

^"D. I. 152, Achille (2), A; D. I. 231, Adonis, K; D. I. 546, Amphiaraus, 
K; D. VII. 14, Gambara. 

" O. D. IV. 642-3. Cf. D. II. 560, Augustin, I : Bayle says that poets 
and orators do not use words with the same care for their exact meaning 
that^ philosophers display. 



Poetry 2 7 

ear, is important.^'^ He protests against the custom of over- 
loading poetry with minute references to fable and antiquity in 
the desire to make a show of erudition.^^ Anachronisms in poetry 
may generally be excused,^" but there is a limit to this indulgence 
and poets must not take liberties with chronology which result 
in absurd falsehood.^^ It is taken for granted that poetry will 
abound in allusions to the supernatural and to the marvellous. 
Poets 

sont si entetez de semer dans leurs Ouvrages plusieurs descriptions 
pompeuses, comme sont celles des prodiges, et de donner du merveilleux 
aux avantures de leur Heros : que pour arriver a leurs fins ils suposent 
mille choses etonnantes.^ 

A man who starts to write poetry has all nature at his com- 
mand; tempests, eclipses, comets, monsters, demons and angels, 
may be introduced to meet the needs of the occasion. Bayle 
accepts the pastoral manner as it is; he sees the artificial side 
of it, but seems to think one may as well yield to the conven- 
tion.^^ It does not enter his head that the pastoral is ever a 
graceful ideal, and he fails to understand why such a conceit 
should have been handed down from Theocritus through Virgil 
to modern times. There is very little vraisemhlance in the pas- 
toral verses that modern poets produce — but vraisemhlance would 
not do here. In ancient times shepherds were a superior class 
and might indeed be taken as models for gallantry; at present, 
however, such swains and their loves as they are found in real 
life are crude rustics whom it would not do to depict in poetry. 

^D. XIV. 437, Virgile, L; cf. O. D. I. 164, ii. 

'"D. X. 371, Melampus, B ; O. D. IV. 546-7. 

^<*D. IV. 582-3, Catius, C. 

'^D. IV. 597, Catulle, I. 

^ O. D. III. 10, iv. Cf. D. XII. I, Phaon. 

^O. D. I. 634. 

In the letter which Bayle presents as written by a M. Crisante (O. D. 
II. 303-8; cf. supra, p. 18, n. 15), poets as well as romancers and dramatists 
are accused of depicting women as unnaturally cold and prudish. 

Cf . the following precept as to the hero and heroine of a poem : 
"Ulysse etait le heros du poeme; il fallait done necessairement que son 
epouse y parut comme une heroine ou pour le moins en honnete femme. 
Ce serait pecher contre les regies les plus essentielles, que de ne point 
supprimer toutes les actions honteuses de la femme de son heros." D. 
XL 542, Penelope, K, 



IV 

DRAMA 

The stage productions of Bayle's own time interest him/ 
and he makes some comment on dramatic writing in general. 
He refers in one case to Les Femmes Savantes and to PsycJte, 
a tragedy-ballet, and states that he could hardly say which piece 
pleases him most.^ He is interested in the opera, and individual 
works are occasionally praised.^ He does not speak highly 
of dramatic poets and actors, suggesting even that they are 
insignificant,* and mentioning them as flatterers.^ 

The standards for dramatic production, the rules according 
to which plays should be written, are determined by the fact 
that the theatre has a single and a well defined object: to please. 
A playwright composes a piece to amuse the people, and if he 
succeeds in giving them any moral instruction it is accomplished 
through pleasing them.'® If there is any case where it is true 
that the majority should rule, says Bayle, it is here. A dramatist 
must try to suit everybody, but, since this is naturally diflicult, 
he will do well to adapt himself to the demands of the crowd 



^For mention of various productions cf. D. I. 371, Albutius (2), G; 
D. VIII. 130, Hierophile, A; D. VIII. 314, Hutterus, C; O. D. I. L. 
76, xlviii, 78, xlix; O. D. IV. 554; O. D. IV. 834, ccxcv. 

' O. D. I. L. 22. 

*0. D. I. L. 49, 116. 

The music and the machines please him especially: O. D. I. L. 67, 
Without these the opera is " pitoyable : " O. D. I. L. 65-66, 75, 78, xlix. 

Bayle's comment on music is worth noting. He writes to his younger 
brother: "je suis bien-aise que vous aiez du gout pour la musique, c'est 
un talent qui est d'usage dans le monde." O. D. I. L. 75. 

Cf. O. D. I. 114, vii: On the difficulty of understanding the words sung 
in opera. Cf . O. D. I. 651, i : a ref . to opera as " la maladie a la mode." 

*0. D. I. 504, i; O. D. IV. 585, xli. Parts of this letter are identical 
with a letter to Basnage published by Gigas, 74-85, under the date, 17 
November, 1674. 

^D. II. 266, Archelaus (3), H. 

'O. D. III. 200-203, X. 



Drama 



29 



and not be troubled by the censure of the cultured few who 
insist on adherence to set rules. 

On doit considerer la Comedie comme un repas donne au peuple, 
rimportance est done que les viandes paroissent bonnes aux conviez, et 
non pas qu'elles aient ete apretees selon les regies de I'art de Cuisine/ 

Among those dramatists who preferred the judgment of the 
people to that of the critics Bayle names Terence, Pomponius 
Secundus, Lope de Vega, Moliere and Corneille. 

The moral instruction which a drama gives may be consider- 
able. Bayle doubts if a playwright can make any headway 
against the capital vices, such as illicit love, envy, avarice, and 
downright rascality; but he holds that the theatre may attack, 
with great effectiveness, petty weaknesses.® Moliere has suc- 
ceeded in overwhelming with ridicule fops and prudes, devotees 
of preciosite, would-be marquises, and importunate versifiers.^ 
Bayle refers to a comedy^^ where the trickery of a procureiir is 
ridiculed, and admits the moral good sometimes gained by such 
subtle raillery.^^ Tragedy as well as comedy may point a moral.^^ 
Yet in the case of both these kinds of drama the opposite effect 
must be guarded against. Moliere has laid himself open, in 
some of his pieces, to the charge of encouraging coquetry.^^ 
Euripides is blamed for setting a bad example before his audi- 
ence in the case of Phcedra}^ Bayle objects to the profanities 
which were introduced in early French dramatic productions. 
To point out the standards in the sixteenth century he cites selec- 
tions from the Mystere des Actes des Apotres}^ He states 
that the quotations he gives 

suffiront a nous apprendre que pendant que Ton defendait au peuple 
de voir les histoires saintes dans le livre qui les contient purement et 



' O. D. III. 202, X. 

*0. D. I. 40, vii. 

® On the power of comedians and of Moliere in particular cf. Gigas, 
71-72. 

^° Arlequin Procureur. O. D. I. 40, vii. 

" Cf. Gigas, 69. Here Bayle is speaking of such satirists as Moliere 
and Boileau. 

" Cf. D. XII, 476, Rataller, A. 

"O. D. I. 40, vii. 

"D. VI. 366, Euripide, Y. 

"D. V. 149, Chocquet, A. Bayle makes a mistake in attributing the 
Mystere des Actes des Apotres to Louis Chocquet. Cf. O. D. IV. 829, 



30 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

fidelement on lui permettait de les voir sur le theatre souillees de mille 
inventions grossieres, dont on exprimait la plupart d'une fagon basse 
et en style de farceur." 

In regard to the responsibility of a dramatist for the morals 
of his play, Bayle grants that it is absurd to hold an author 
ansv^erable for all the opinions which he makes his characters 
profess.^'' Yet a dramatist may go to such extremes that he 
lays himself open to censure. 

II est bien certain que I'auteur d'une tragedie ne doit point passer pour 
croire tous les sentimens qu'il etale, mais il y a des affections qui 
decouvrent ce qu'on peut mettre sur son compte; et quoi qu'il en soit, 
on peut justement interdire le theatre a certaines pieces, soit que I'auteur 
y debite, soit qu'il n'y debite pas ses sentimens." 

Vraisemhlance is often upset in the drama, and the concep- 
tions of life seen in certain comedies, romans, and semblables 
petits Livres, are sometimes the result of pure invention.^^ 
But, if discernment is exercised, it will be noted that many of 
the portrayals of dramatists are based on actual conditions. 
Bayle points out Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme as an example.^^ 
Moliere would never have conceived such a piece if he had not 
been quite familiar with the type of new-rich individual who 
feels that his wealth gives him rank, and who affects the 
manners of a noble gentleman. The exaggerations in the piece 
are patent; if such a man existed in real life, he would be 
assigned a guardian — but the railleries are based on fact. The 
likeness to real conditions is especially evident in the case of 
comedies which attack the absurdities of married life.^^ There 
is, moreover, an excuse for the exaggerations of dramatists; a 
comedian who wishes to cure some absurdity of manners or 



note by Desmaiseaux, and Michaund, Biographie Universelle, article Louis 
Chocquet. 

" D. V. 149, Chocquet, A. On the immoralities in the drama cf . D. 
VL 491, Flora, C, sub-note 12; D. VII. 27, Garasse, I; D. IX. 305-6, 
Loyer, E; D. IX. 566, Luther, S. 

"D. VI. 350, Euripide; O. D. II. 712. 

"D. VL 265, Eschyle, F. Cf. D. VL 236, Erasme, Q. Bayle is object- 
ing to profane and impious sentiments expressed on the stage. 

"O. D. IL 322-3. 

*' O. D. IL 322. 

" O. D. II. 323. 



Drama 3 1 

morals must draw things out of their normal proportions in 
order to emphasize the weakness attacked and drive his idea 
home.^^ 

It is noteworthy that the slight criticism which Bayle offers 
in regard to particular plays is concerned with matters of fact, 
with the question of adherence to probable or actual happenings. 
He commends Racine for following the traditional facts in his 
Berenice.^^ The dismissal of Berenice is in accordance with 
the historical facts, and our author thinks that Racine represents 
the love of Titus as less strong than that of Berenice in order 
that it may be natural for him to dismiss her. Bayle criticises, 
in the Agamemnon of Seneca, Ajax' long continued and 
extravagant resistance of the gods, an exaggeration which would 
not be tolerated in the modern theatre.^* There is lack of vrai- 
semhlance in the abominable passion of Chimene, who becomes 
affianced to the murderer of her father on the day of the crime.^^ 
A pagan poet could have treated the subject better, for he 
might represent Chimene as maddened by Venus. But Corneille 
is wrong in writing in such a way, and he has been censured 
with justice by M. de Scudery. 

The Amphitryon of Plautus meets with criticism on several 
points. ^^ Bayle objects to treating the war against the Tele- 
boans as though it were waged by Amphitryon in behalf of 
the Theban king, Creon, instead of being carried on in his own 



'^O. D. I. 570; cf. O. D. III. 973. 

For references to lack of vraisemhlance in the drama cf. D. VII. 535, 
Helene, K; D. XII. 114, Pyrrhus, E; O. D. I. 72>- 

In the letter from M. Crisante (O. D. II. 308; cf. supra, p. 18, n. 15) 
Bayle speaks vigorously against the lack of vraisemhlance in comedy. 
Among other things he objects to " laquais qui fissent un message en 
vers," to Kings and Queens who " accusent la Fortune par des sentences 
bien rimees et bien cadencees." He censures the Misanthrope because the 
hero shows a weakness and a stubborness in his love affair which are 
beyond all reason. The sincerity of the opinions expressed in this letter 
is doubtful.^ It is unsafe to credit Bayle with a view which he assigns 
to his opponent. As a matter of fact the opinions on things literary do 
not vary essentially from those we know as Bayle's own. 

^'D. III. 351, Berenice (s), D. 

"D. I. 313, Ajax, B. 

" O. D. III. 201. 

=' D. XIV. 65-7, Teleboes, D, E, F. 



3 2 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

interests. This diminishes the importance of Amphitryon in 
the drama. Plautus should have taken advantage of tradition, 
which asserts that Amphitryon was the instigator and director 
of the war; he should have used the situation to the credit of 
his hero.^^ The geography of the play is absurd, for the The- 
bans are made to embark at the Eubean port when they start 
out for the Echinades Islands. ^^ Plautus shocks vraisemhlance 
and decency too when he represents Jupiter as embracing 
Alcmena the night before she gives birth to twins. The dra- 
matist should have followed tradition and dwelt on a visit 
which Jupiter paid her some months before and should have 
made capital out of that; he should not have supposed a second 
visit on la veille de V accouchement}^ That Plautus represents 
Alcmena as being delivered without pain is excusable, for here 
he does not upset tradition in any essential, and the incident 
helps in the denouement of the drama. It is wrong to accuse 
Plautus of an anachronism when he represents Amphitryon as 



^'As a matter of fact there are only casual references to Creon in the 
play; and the king in no way makes Amphitryon less important. 

"* D. XIV. 67, Teleboes, F. " Quel circuit, bon Dieu ! ne f aut-il point 
faire pour aller la, si Ton s'embarque a I'ile d'Eubee." 

^^ Bayle asserts here, D. XIV. 67. Teleboes, F, that Plautus observes 
unity of time — which is true. But elsewhere, D. I. 408, Alcmene, D, his 
words imply that Plautus did not observe unity of time. " Dans la 
comedie de Plaute . . . Amphitryon y laisse sa femme grosse en 
s'en allant a la guerre. Grand ragoiit pour Jupiter! Ce serait bien pis, 
si Plaute avait observe I'unite de temps comme le veut Mademoiselle 
le Fevre. II faudrait dire en ce cas-la, qu'en arretant le soleil Jupiter 
interrompit tout le cours de la nature, afin de se divertir plus long-temps 
avec une femme grosse de deux enfans, et si proche de son terme, que 
pour peu qu'il eut differe sa retraite, la sage femme aurait ete obligee de 
lui dire, * cedez-moi la place.' C'est une facheuse alternative pour 
Plaute: il faut> ou que sa piece dures plusieurs mois, ou qu'il fasse d'une 
femme toute prete d'accoucher de deux jumeaux, un des plus friands 
morceaux du monde pour le plus grand de tous les monarques; et cela 
en supposant que ce maitre des Dieux et des hommes a deja produit Tun 
de ces jumeaux." Either Bayle's manner of expression or his ideas on 
the subject are confused. Especially since he goes to say: " Prenez bien 
garde que ce poete ne feint pas que Jupiter se deguisa en Amphitryon, 
pour venir en bon mari au secours dAlcmene pendant le travail d'enf ant : 
c'etait la visite d'un homme bien amoureux." 



Drama 



33 



killing Pterelaus, for he had historical authority in making the 
two men contemporaries. And in any case a poet does not 
have to adhere strictly to facts.^*^ 



'"Note that in another detail in the same piece Bayle is less lenient. 
He objects to speaking of the Eubean port as the Persian port, " par une 
anticipation trop licencieuse." D. XIV. 67, Teleboes, E. 

Bayle censures the " mauvais poetes qui, dans une piece de theatre, se 
servaient d'un dieu de machine pour denouer un tres-petit embarras." 
D. XI. 296, Ovide, G; cf. D. II. 44, Anaxagoras, G. 



V 

ORATORY 

Our author is not over-familiar with the eloquence of the 
Greeks and Romans, nor is he well acquainted with the pulpit 
eloquence which represents the most important oratory of his 
own time. The masterpieces which the Roman Catholic Church 
produced in France in the seventeenth century are little known 
to the refugee at Rotterdam. He is better acquainted with 
Protestant sermons, but confesses he does not like them. His 
inability to appreciate the rhetoric of the Protestant ministers 
provokes the remark, in a letter which gives evidence of bitter- 
ness and discouragement: 

II faut que je n'aye pas le gout de 1' eloquence de la Chaire, et il est 
bien plus juste de penser cela, que de revoquer en doute la capacite de 
ces Messieurs.^ 

Doubtless Bayle's failure to value the efforts of the Protestants 
of his day is excusable. In any case he shows little enthusiasm 
about any kind of eloquence. Once or twice he refers to a 
subject as a good one for an orator, as offering opportunity for 
a display of rhetoric.^ But such interest is only momentary. 
He admits that oratory can be made use of with considerable 
effect; public speakers have power to do much good or much 
harm — particularly the latter.^ 

There are a few comments on general features of eloquence, 
and some remarks on details of the art. Oratory appeals to 



^O. D. I. L. 43. 

*D. I. 206, Adam, L; O. D. I. 188, viii; O. D. I. 741, iii; O. D. I. L. 
44-5. 

''D. IV. 11-12, Bossu; D. V. 285, Conon (2), D; D. XL 408, Parthenai, 
A; D. XL 621, Pericles. 

It should be noted that in two of these references, the first and third, 
Bayle is attacking a Catholic. 

Of the peculiarities of orators as a class Bayle has almost nothing 
to say. He refers to their jealousies: D. II. 69, Ancillon, B; D. IL 
504, Atticus, B; cf. D. VIII. 220, Hortensius, H. 



Oratory 3 5 

the passions, not to the understanding. Of the methods of men 
who seek to sway an audience, Bayle says: 

Ces Messieurs-la ne se soucient gueres d'eclairer I'esprit; ils se con- 
tentent de persuader par rentremise des passions ; ils vont droit au coeur 
et non pas droit a Tentendement ; ils tachent d'exciter I'amour, la haine, 
la colere; . . .* 

He suggests that a man who is hot-blooded is apt to succeed 
in declamation.^ Certain conceptions that are not capable of 
any proof may be used most effectively by a speaker. The 
idea, for instance, that the appearance of a comet has some 
mystic import may be so developed by an orator as to impress 
his audience profoundly and win him much more credit than 
any mere logical discourse.^ 

An orator wants above all to affect his hearers; to this he 
devotes more attention than to truth."^ In the heat of declama- 
tion these spell-binders do not hesitate to exaggerate, they 
emphasize such details of a question as suit their purpose, and 
they suppress whatever may harm their particular cause. ^ Law- 
yers are especially inclined to say in their speeches whatever 
meets the need of the moment, and resulting contradictions 
are frequent.® 

Oratory, then, is generally characterized by a faux eclat,^^ both 
in the style of reasoning employed and the amount of considera- 
tion paid to fact. Bayle objects to this. A sermon which 
has false brilliancy may be most effective in the pulpit. 



*0. D. III. 178; cf. D. VI. 63, Duaren, B; cf. D. XII. 155, Pitiscus, 
A : " L'eloquence armee de pompe, et de figures, est necessaire aux 
predicateurs : un raisonnement sec et precis a la mathematicienne ne leur 
convient pas, et ne ferait point sur les auditeurs les impressions que 
I'etat de rhomme demande." 

"D. I. 208, Adam (3). 

"O. D. III. 10, iii. 

^D. IV. 192, Brutus (2), K: ". , . un orateur se soucie peu que 
de tels faits soient certains : il se contente qu'une partie du peuple les 
croie." Cf. D. IV. 492, Cassius, B; D. IX. 431, Louis XII, D ; D. X. 
356, Mausole, C. 

*0. D. III. 178; cf. D. IV. 408, Capisucchi (2), B; D. V. 194, Cimon, 
D; D. V. 285, Conon (2), E; D. VI. 548, Frangois, E; D. IX. 333, 
Loyola, X; D. X. 393, Melanchton, O; O. D. I. L 118; O. D. II. 109. 

'D. II. 135-7, Antoine (2), B, C. 

" O. D. I. 645, vi. 



36 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

but on paper, without the fire and enthusiasm which the 
preacher has put into it, a reader is apt to find it insipid.^^ 
The utterances of a preacher should be based on truth; they 
should not consist of exaggerations which, however they may 
glitter, are unreliable and misleading.^^ Bayle protests against 
subtleties and paradoxes in a sermon. ^^ He criticises severely 
an extreme compliment paid Louis XIV in a sermon by the 
Abbe Denise, Chanoine de Troyes; it may have been brilliant 
and effective, but it was only an amas de fausses pensees}^ It 
is true that sometimes Bayle seems to accept the fact that 
orators pay slight attention to logic, and that mathematical rea- 
soning is not necessary in an oration. But he regrets this state 
of affairs.^^ In several cases where he does find solid reasoning 
in a speech he indicates his approval.^® 

Since eloquence makes its appeal to the heart rather than to 
the brain, an orator has little need of profound scholarship. As 
a matter of fact a man gifted as an orator is not apt to have 
the talent for great learning — but his weakness in this particular 
does not matter. Of preachers Bayle says: 

le but des Predicateurs etant de toucher leur Auditoire, et de le tenir 
attentif, ils ont plus de besoin d'eloquence, d' imagination," de pensees 
probables et populaires, d'ornemens et de moralitez, que de raisonnements 
profonds et solides ... ils employent tout leur temps a chercher 
les finesses de I'eloquence et . . . ils renoncent a la profonde erudi- 



"O. D. I. L. 86. Cf. D. IV. 524, Cassius (7), O, on the difference 
" entre le succes d'une harangue recitee et le succes d'une harangue 
publiee." 

"O. D. II. 299. 

^' O. D. I. L. 86. Cf . O. D. I. L. 56. Note that Morus, though Bayle 
names him as the man who introduced such subtleties into sermons, is 
given credit for a certain adroitness. 

"O. D. II. 298-9, iv. 

" Cf. O. D. II. 299 : " les personnes de bon gout souhaiteroient pas- 
sionement que les Predicateurs se pussent guerir une bonne fois de la 
maladie de mal raisonner." Cf. D. VI. 377, Experiens, A : " Les logiciens 
se servent trop de I'art du distinguo: les orateurs ne s'en servent pas 
assez." 

"D. VII. 124, Gontaut, C; D. X. 408, Mestrezat, F; O. D. I. 500, iv. 

*' Cf. D. I. 239, Afer, B : Bayle says that, since orators draw so heavily 
on their imagination, they should retire before their fire is exhausted. 
They are inclined, however, to persist in their activity to the end. Cf. 
supra, p. 24 (of the imagination of poets). 



Oratory 3 7 

tion qui generalement parlant ne leur serviroit pas de beaucoup en 
Chaire." 

Learning ordinarily makes a sermon dry and diminishes its 
grace and effectiveness.^^ On the other hand a preacher must 
have a grasp of the essentials in things erudite and theological ; 
otherwise he is at a considerable disadvantage and cannot hope 
to influence his audience.^^ Evidently Bayle believes in a happy 
medium; a preacher need not be a savant, but he must have a 
fairly well furnished mind.^^ 

There are a number of miscellaneous criticisms concerning 
various details of oratory. Some languages are richer than 
others in the terms and expressions which an orator may use to 
good effect.^2 Eloquence is especially developed in a country 
where there exist portentous political questions. ^^ A man who 
has a good memory and who can imitate the manners of some 
great speaker may readily make himself an orator.^* This ques- 
tion of manners, of delivery, is important.^^ The personal ap- 



"O. D. II. 297, XX ; cf. D. XII. 288-9, Porcius, U. Here Bayle says: 
" les talens de I'eloquence sont pour I'ordinaire separes de la vaste erudi- 
tion." He refers to lawyers, orators and preachers; cf. O. D. II. 20. 

Cf. D. VII. 22, Garasse : Bayle tells how Garasse had the brilliancy 
and power of imagination which made him a good orator, but was unfitted 
for writing, especially on subjects which demand dignity, careful reason- 
ing and careful scholarship. 

"O. D. II. 297, XX : " Un homme qui a beaucoup d'esprit et de juge- 
ment se pent servir avec avantage de la science ; par rapport aux Predica- 
tions, mais pour I'ordinaire la profonde science nuit plus a un Predicateur, 
qu'elle ne lui sert." 

^° O. D. II. 299. Bayle remarks on the injustice of the common people, 
who are prone to judge a sermon poor if it is entirely clear, if the 
preacher does not put in a few remarks which are too deep for them. 

^^ Cf . D. IV. 31-2, Bouchin, B: Bayle objects to the attempt on the 
part of preachers and lawyers to display learning in their speeches. He 
protests against the former practice of filling a sermon or a plea with 
allusions to literature, to the ancients, etc. He adds that modern lawyers 
have gone to the opposite extreme; their erudition is too slight. 

" O. D. I. 163-4. 

^'O. D. I. 113. 

^*D. X. 596, Musso, B. 

^ D. X. 596, Musso, C : " Que la bonne mine est un favorable pre- 
curseur pour celui qui parle en public! elle dispose I'assemblee a bien 
ecouter, elle ebranle les suffrages avant qu'il ouvre la bouche." Cf. D. 



38 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

pearance of an orator, and his voice, may make or mar him. 
It is desirable that he give the impression of speaking readily 
and freely, without long preparation, and without recourse to 
the little tricks of the profession. ^'^ In other words, let him 
seem easy and frank. A skillful orator will know how to 
attack an opponent at a weak point, and will make use of every 
chance to exercise his power of satire.^^ In the pulpit a serious 
and dignified tone is to be insisted upon.^^ Bayle speaks of the 
dignified utterances which the Huguenots demand in the pulpit, 
and adds: 

Ceux de la religion ne font nul cas de ces ornemens mondains, et de 
cette rhetorique effeminee dont les predicateurs de I'autre parti se parent.''® 

A preacher should stick to his text. It is possible to please a 
congregation by shifting from one subject to another and intro- 
ducing clever ideas which the variety of topics suggests. There 
are m.any who like such a sermon — but it is poor taste.^° Bayle 
praises the text of a funeral oration of I'Ahhe de la Chambre 
for its simplicity and epigrammatic force.^^ He does not have 
much to say about funeral orations in general, but refers to 
the fact that the fair words of commendation on such occa- 
sions are apt to be unreliable,^^ and makes the following 
comment on the practice of giving a full account of the last 
illness of the deceased: 

dans les oraisons funebres des professeurs, on voit ordinairement una 
description fort exacte de tous les symptomes de leur derniere maladie; 
si un tel jour ils suerent, s'ils furent constipes ou presses d'un diarrhee, 
etc.«» 



IV. 4, Bosc (3); D. VIII. 43, Henry III. P; D. VIII. 222, Hortensius 
(2), K; D. X. 562, Morus, I; D. XL 592-3, Pericles, D. 

^^'D. II. 137, Antoine (2), D. 

''D. VI. 616, Fulvie (2), F; cf. ibid, 623, L. 

''^D. III. 121, Barlette; O. D. II. 23, 29. Note that in each of these 
three passages there is a suggestion of an argument de circonstance. 

^^D. V. 229, Claude (2), G. 

"°0. D. III. 517. 

^O. D. I. 188, viii. 

^'D. III. 413, Beze, y; D. IX. 405, Louis XL F. 

"^D. XL 439, Pasor, C. Cf. D. I. 175, Acidalius, C: "II n'y a peut- 
etre rien sur quoi la fabuleuse renommee debite plus de mensonges que 
sur les maladies et sur la mort des hommes illustres : c'est pourquoi les 
predicateurs, et en general tous les moralistes, devraient etre extremement 
reserves a faire des reflexions la-dessus." 



VI 

HISTORY 

History, with Bayle, is quite a different thing from poetry 
and fiction and other light Hterature. When he talks about 
history his tone is grave. He discusses earnestly the needs of 
the genre and advocates high ideals. 

Certain comments throw light on his general conception of 
history. A bare narration of external facts is by no means sat- 
isfactory. It is important to get at the causes which underlie 
various historical events, to comprehend the motives which 
impel the various actors. A history which takes these factors 
into account is not only more pleasing, more interesting, but 
also more instructive : 

il est mille fois plus avantageux en lisant I'Histoire d'acquerir ce dis- 
cernement sans se charger que d'un petit nombre de faits, que de se 
remplir d'un nombre innombrable d'evenemens et de noms, sans bien 
penetrer la cause de chaque chose.^ 

Care, indeed, is necessary in analysing the thoughts of historical 
characters. If a historian occupies himself with such questions, 
he must limit his assertions to what can be shown to be probable, 
and he must specify clearly that he is only presenting his own 
inferences.^ Furthermore he must not impute to his character 
his own thoughts and passions.^ And he must be sure that he 

'O. D. I. 148, viii. Cf. D. XIV. 104-5, Theopompe. Cf. O. D. I. 32; 
cf. the reference to this article of the Nouvelles in Gigas, 691, J. Le 
Clerc, note i ; cf . O. D. I. L. 33. 

Cf. O. D. I. 28: Bayle commends Maimbourg's account of the causes 
of the Ligue and says : " En lisant ces choses le Lecteur devine presque 
par avance ce qu'il va lire, et c'est la le grand secret d'un Historien; il 
faut qu'il prepare I'esprit aux evenemens, mais il ne lui est pas permis 
pour cela de preter a ceux dont il parle, toutes les passions et toutes les 
reflexions qu'il imagine dans son cabinet. On ne sgauroit assez blamer 
la license que les Italiens se sont donnee a cet egard." 

'D. X. 603, Musurus, D. Bayle criticises Varillas on this point. 

'Cf. supra, n. i, ref. to O. D. I. 28. Cf. also O. D. II. 527: " Quel- 
quefois un Roman semble plus vraisemblable que I'Histoire la plus sin- 



40 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

has the facts straight; otherwise he may work out a clever 
analysis on a false basis.* But attention to underlying causes, 
provided these precautions are taken, is valuable. Here, then, 
is part of Bayle's definition of history: a record of human 
events, but not a mere chronicle, for it must deal not only with 
results but with causes. 

Another remark explains still further Bayle's conception. A 
historian does well, he says, not to attempt to write about a 
period which has already been treated by many authors.^ If 
he has discovered a few new facts he had better publish them 
separately, rather than incorporate them in a general wdrk 
which would repeat a thousand details already known. New 
histories on time-worn subjects displease the public. He who 
undertakes such a work copies others and is open to the accusa- 
tion of plagiarism ; he gets little glory for making a good copy 
and he exposes himself to sharp criticism when his work is 
compared with the previous writings. There may, indeed, be 
particular instances where a writer is justified in reworking a 
much treated subject. If he has new material with an important 

cere, et rien quelquefois ne nous semble plus naif, et plus assure, que 
les motifs qu'un Historien fait avoir aux Princes, lesquels motifs ne 
sont qu'une fiction de I'Historien tres-eloignee de la verite, laquelle, 
s'il I'avoit raporte fidelement, les Lecteurs eussent trouvee quelquefois 
plate, absurde, contraire a toute vraisemblance et raison." 

*D. VI. 309, Etampes (2), K. Bayle criticises Varillas on this point. 
Cf. D. XV. 176, Dissert, sur les Lihelles Diff., A. Bayle is speaking of 
a certain class of historians who take particular pleasure in prying out 
new bits of information. " lis aiment a dire ce qui ne se trouve point 
dans les histoires ordinaires : ils aspirent a la louange d'avoir deterre 
des anecdotes, et les qualites occultes des premiers ministres, avec le 
secret des intrigues, et des negociations que personne n'avait su. Qu'une 
chose ait ete abandonnee a I'oubli de tout le monde, c'est assez pour 
eux afin de la publier. Ils vont plus avant; ils batissent la-dessus tout 
un systeme: cela leur sert de clef pour ouvrir le cabinet des souverains; 
ils donnent raison par-la de plusieurs mysteres, si on les en croit." The 
zeal of such writers in getting hold of these details is praiseworthy 
enough, but their readiness to accept the information as reliable is to be 
deplored. Bayle refers to Varillas as a historian of this kind. 

' O. D. III. 1023, iv. Note that in this case Bayle refers to the reign 
of Henri IV, and seems quite satisfied with the works on that period 
already written. He names, as historians of the period, Julien Peleus, 
Pierre Mathieu, Baptiste le Grain, Scipion Du-pleix, Mezerai, etc. Cf. 
D. VII. 465-6, Haillan, E. 



History 41 

bearing upon the events of a period, it is quite right for him 
to embody his discoveries in a fresh history of the whole period. 
And a writer does real service to the public when he gathers in 
a general account of an epoch historical facts, already known, 
but scattered in various books, or when he writes of an age 
which is described only in archaic works, for whose style the 
public has no liking. In general, however, Bayle would say 
that there is no justification for composing a history of events 
which have already been carefully described. He evidently 
looks on history as a collection of facts, not merely the externals 
which first strike the attention, but nevertheless facts, of the 
kind that can be put on record, once and for all time. It does 
not seem to occur to him that a new historian, big in brains 
and imagination, might do much to illuminate the history of a 
period of which the " facts " are already known in great detail. 
There is little in Bayle's comments to indicate that he had 
any definite notion of what the lessons of history might be, 
of the use man might make of the records of the past.^ He 
is particularly impressed with the fact that, on account of the 
general corruption of man, a history which contains a faithful 
narration of events is bound to take on the appearance of a 
satire against the human race,^ and he grants that a writer may 
safely venture a few personal comments on this general cor- 
ruption which he presents.^ Yet the historian must be sparing 
with such remarks. 

II suffit done de bien exposer les faits : les sentences en ce genre-la doivent 
etre menagees tout comme celles qu'on nomme maximes : elles ne doivent 
pas se montrer hors d'oeuvres ou en relief, il faut les incorporer dans 
la narration, comme on I'a dit ci-dessus.® 

Bayle objects especially to authors who introduce puerile 
moral reflections in connection with events. ^^ In one case 



^ Cf . supra, p. 39, n. i, ref . to O. D. I. 32, O. D. I. 148. 

' D. IV. 181, Bruschius, D ; cf . D. X. 196-7, Manicheens, D : " L'Histoire 
n'est a propremcnt parler qu'un recueil des crimes et des infortunes du 
genre humain." History contains some examples of virtue, however, 
Bayle admits here; cf. D. XI. 270, Orose, G; D. XL 324, Padilla, E. 

*D. IV. 181, Bruschius, D. 

«D. XIV. 175-6, Timee, L; cf. D. XIV. 104, Theon, C. 

^"O. D. III. II, vi: "ils (historians) poussent quelquefois si loin la 
moralite qu'un Lecteur mal satisfait de les voir interrompre le fil de 
I'Histoire, leur diroit volontiers, s'il les tenoit, ' riservate questo per la 



42 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

Bayle sees that History may present a certain useful 
example : an account of the horrors of the religious wars 
in France in the sixteenth century may be valuable in 
warning posterity to refrain from such atrocities.^^ But 
elsewhere he suggests that the example drawn from history 
depends much on the prejudice of the reader. In regard to 
the records of the Greeks and Romans which show their love 
for liberty and their hatred of monarchs, Bayle says the influ- 
ence of these books works in two directions : devotees of 
democracy will find splendid examples of the virtue of a love 
for liberty; those who believe in monarchical government will 
point out the conspiracies and political upsets which attended 
the efforts of the ancients, and will see therein a proof of the 
justice of their opinion. ^^ In a word, then, Bayle does not 
emphasize the significance of the instruction which history may 
be able to give. His interest seems, to some extent, the interest 
of a savant who gathers facts for the love of having them. 
It is granted that history writing is difficult, more difHcult 
perhaps than any other task which an author might under- 
take.^^ The best historians are perplexed by the difficulties they 



predica.'" Cf. O. D. III. 192, ii : " ils (some historians) feroient bien 
d'en oter (from their books) tant de reflexions devotes que I'on y a 
repandues, et qui auroient du etre reservees pour des sermons, ou pour 
des Livres de piete." 

Cf. O. D. II. 84: Bayle refers to a comment of Maimbourg on the 
downfall of the Prince de Conde as a sign of God's wrath against those 
who oppose the Roman Church. His attitude is distinctly partisan here, 
and he refers not only to froides moralitez but to vains ornemens de 
pensees fausses. 

^^ D. X. 35-7, Macon, C. Although Bayle grants here that " ceux qui 
semblent trouver mauvais que Ton fasse des histoires, parce, disent-ils, 
qu'elles n'apprenent aux lecteurs que toutes sortes de crimes, ont a 
certains egards beaucoup de raison par rapport a I'histoire des guerres 
sacrees." Cf. also D. XIII. 273, Sforce (3), E: In speaking of a his- 
torian who left out a detail which brought discredit to Catherine Sforza, 
Bayle says: " Et si tous les historiens imitaient celui dont je vous parle, 
n'6terait-on pas aux hommes la crainte de la posterite, frein tres-puissant 
pour les contenir dans leur devoir, et I'un des principaux fruits de 
I'histoire?" 

" D. VIII. 161, Hobbes, C. 

"D. XII. 504, Remond, D. 



History 43 

encounter, and make mistakes.^* It is no wonder that people 
insist on the uncertainty of history, on the unreliability of what 
are supposed to be historical facts. Yet Bayle is inclined to 
object to the extremes to which some go in proclaiming this. 
He is willing to accept the testimony of serious, careful his- 
torians, although he objects to doubtful evidence: 

selon les lois publiques, en fait de lecture d'histoire, on regoit pour bon 
ce qui se prouve par le temoignage des auteurs graves, et Ton rejette 
comme une fable tout ce qu'un moderne debite concernant I'antiquite, 
sans I'avoir lu dans de bons historiens.^^ 

Of a writer who carried le pyrrhonisme historique to excess it 
is suggested that he deserves to be classed with that doubter 
who was sure that all Caesar had to say in his Commentaries 
about the Gallic Wars is false and that Caesar never reached 
the other side of the Alps.^^ Bayle thinks the uncertainty of 
history may be overcome to an appreciable extent.^'^ Here 
and there in his writings he takes up questions of impartiality, 
accuracy, and style, in historical composition, he indicates some 
of the difficulties in detail, and urges that they be met and 
conquered. 

Partiality is common in the writings of historians. Events 
are described from the personal point of view of the author, 
and he allows his individual prejudices to sway him. Bayle 
dwells especially on the one-sidedness of those who write of the 
Reformation and of Protestantism, but he does not claim that 
the Catholics alone are at fault in this case; he admits that both 
sides err. It is an easy matter so to shift the details of history 
as to produce the effect which the spite or passion of the writer 
makes him desire. A slight change in word order, the neglect 
or the addition of some petty incident, can make or destroy the 



"D X. 518, Mopsus, E; D. XL 90, Navarre (3), H: les meilleures his- 
toires nous trompent — note that Bayle refers in this case to Brantome 
and Mezerai. 

"'D. VII. 324, Guevara, D. 

" Cf . D. XV. 241, Dissert, cont. le Pro jet, IX. Bayle states that many 
historical problems can be solved with full certainty. He is here point- 
ing out the difference between historical and mathematical-metaphysical 
truth. Note the following: "ce serait . . . passer d'un genre de 
choses a un autre, que de demander que Ton prouvat non-seulement qu'il 
a paru a toute I'Europe qu'il se donna une sanglante bataille a Senef, 



44 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

reputation of a historical personage.^^ Bayle states that he reads 
the accounts of the Catholics and Protestants, not in the hope 
of getting at the actual facts, but merely from a desire to find 
out what each side has to say and to discover what particular 
prejudices prompt each writer.^^ He also comments many times 
on the partiality of historians who deal with political subjects, 
where there is no suggestion of religious differences. Flattery 
and vituperation abound. A history is frequently written for 
the sole purpose of venting personal malice. The author of such 
a work does not wait until his anger has cooled, so as to write 
a fair account ; he composes while his passions are still aroused, 
persuaded, perhaps, that his anger will give him the talent for 
writing which he ordinarily lacks. ^^ 

It is indeed hard, to avoid being partial in writing a history. 

Je ne pretends pas qu'il soit facile de composer une histoire qui repre- 
sente avec une egale sincerite les fautes et la prudence, le tort et le 



Tan 1674; mais aussi que les objets sont tels hors de notre esprit, qu'ils 
nous paraissent." 

" O. D. II. 10. Apropos of Maimbourg's Histoire du Calvinisme. Cf. 
O. D. I. 516. 

"O. D. 11. 10-12. Bayle grants the possibility of some degree of cer- 
tainty in the case of such histories. A fact may be accepted which both 
sides agree to, however it affects the credit of either. Discernment in 
weighing the evidence may also be of use. But this is no easy matter, 
for a clever historian can make the evidence, as he presents it, ;seem 
convincing. Cf. O. D. I. 462; O. D. I. 510, iv: . . . " L'Histoire, 
qui est, a proprement parler, comme ces tableaux et ces Medailles, oil 
Ton ne cherche pas la ressemblance, mais I'habilite de I'Ouvrier." 

"D. XIV. 175, Timee, L. 

For passing remarks on the partiality of historians, cf. D. III. 258, 
Bellai (2), F; D. III. 530, Boleyn, B; D. IV. 429, Capriata, D; D. V. 
70, Charles-Quint, I; D. V. 120, Chatel (2), C; D. VI. 103, Eginhart; 
D. VI. 323, Eudes, B; D. X. 107, Mahomet II. D; D. X. 114, Mahomet 
II, X; D. XIV. 112, Theopompe, H; O. D. I. 202, iv; Gigas, 81 (cf. 
supra, p. 28, n. 4, the ref. to the letter published by Gigas, 74-85). 

Cf. O. D. I. 510: " Voila, on peu s'en faut, le sort de I'Histoire; chaque 
nation, chaque Religion, chaque Secte prend les memes faits tout cruds 
oti ils se peuvent trouver, les accommode et les assaisonne selon son gout, 
et puis ils semblent a chaque Lecteur vrais ou faux, selon qu'ils con- 
viennent, ou qu'ils repugnent a ses prejugez." 

Cf . D. XV. 186-7, Dissert, sur les Lihelles Diff., E : " comme ce qui 
est orthodoxie dans une religion est une heresie dans une autre, ce qui 
est une bataille gagnee dans les historiens d'une nation est une bataille 



History 45 

droit, les pertes et les avantages, des deux partis, II faudrait etre rhomme 
sans passions ou le sage des sto'iques, cet homme qu'on ne trouvera 
jamais, et qui ne subsiste qu'en idee; il faudrait, dis-je, parvenir a cette 
indolence, si Ton voulait s'assurer que Ton tiendra tou jours ce juste 
milieu en ecrivant une histoire.^" 

For example, a man who would write of the great Protestant 
Reformation has a complicated task on his hands and must make 
a special effort to escape religious prejudice, otherwise he has 
no right to undertake such an enterprise. Bayle states that there 
are some who wish that such a history might be written, not 
by a Protestant or a Catholic, but by a pagan like Thucydides 
or Livy, who could have looked on the whole matter from a 
neutral point of view and who could have estimated justly 
the merits of each party. He adds that here too he doubts 
whether impartiality could be secured, for Catholicism is more 
like the religion of the pagans than Protestantism and that might 
have prejudiced these writers.^^ It is hard for a historian to 
get away from his predilections even in cases where there would 
seem to be no occasion for personal likes and dislikes to enter. 
Suppose that a historian should give an account of some Indian 
king who had been dethroned and who died hundreds of years 
ago. The subject would seem too remote to affect the personal 
sentiments of the author in any way. Yet he may be an enemy 
to monarchical government, and in that case he will not fail 
to shift his facts so as to present the deposed king in an odious 
light. Or if he has the opposite political leanings, he will write 
his history accordingly. Again, a historian is led to take advan- 
tage of such a subject to indulge in criticism of his contempor- 
aries, under the names of the historical characters dealt with.^^ 
Yet whatever difficulties stand in the way of impartiality, 
Bayle is inclined to insist on it as the prime requisite for a 
historian. He deplores the practice of those who, when they 
inquire into the merits of a history, seek information about the 
judgment, the intelligence, and the style of the author, rather 



perdue dans les historiens de I'autre parti. C'est un abus fort ancien, et 
a quoi Ton ne voit pas de remede," 

^' D. IV. 427, Capriata, C. 

"^D. XII. 505, Remond, D. 

"D. XII. 505-6, Remond, D. 



46 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

than about his honesty. A historian must subject himself to a 
rigid adherence to the demands of integrity: 

il faut avoir la conscience si ennemie du mensonge, qu'elle ne vous 
permette pas de mentir, non pas meme a I'avantage de votre religion, 
et de vos plus tendres amis, ni au desavantage d'une secte impie et de 
vos plus implacables persecuteurs. ^ J'entends par mentir non-seulement 
I'invention entiere d'un fait faux, mais aussi la suppression ou Taddition 
de certaines circonstances qui peuvent servir ou a disculper les gens ou 
a les charger.^ 

The duties of a historian are not unlike those of a judge. The 
judge must not let any prejudice of his own weigh in the decision 
of a case; it would be eminently unfair for him to favor some 
particular culprit because he was under personal obligations to 
the man. Similarly a historian must be bound by no such ties. 
It is wrong to expect that he should deal gently with the weak- 
nesses of some public character merely because that individual 
has been his benefactor.^* 

In the deplorable partiality which historians show, Bayle sees 
one of the reasons for the unreliability of historical narrative, 
for the confusion which prevails concerning details of events.^'^ 



^^^D. XII. 506-7, Remond, D; cf. D. VIL 468, Haillan, G; D. VII. 
490-1, Hall (2), B; D. XIV. 516, Usson, F; O. D. IV. 863. 

Cf . also O. D. IV. 750 : " Le comble de la gloire pour un Historien, c'est 
de faire justice a ses plus grands ennemis;" D. XII. 504, Remond, D: 
Bayle says a historian must have : " une conscience droite, une probite 
achevee, . . . et, sur toutes choses, la force de resister aux instincts 
du zele de religion qui sollicitent a decrier ce qu'on juge faux, et a 
orner ce qu'on juge veritable." This remark is made apropos of a 
History of the Reformation by Remond. The attack which Bayle makes 
here is unjust, according to Le Clerc and Joly (cf. footnote 2, page 506). 

Cf. D. III. 194, Baudouin, A : on Moreri's account of Baudouin : " Oil 
est done la bonne foi historique, et la nettete de recit, qui demandent 
que quand tous les autres livres du monde seraient brules, la seule histoire 
d'un homme apprit clairement a tous les lecteurs s'il a dit ou s'il a fait 
une telle chose?" 

Cf. O. D. I. 520-1 i " II est siir que plus on se pent defaire dei I'esprit 
de ses prejugez, quand on prend la plume pour faire une histoire, plus 
on se rend propre a bien soutenir son personnage." O. D. III. 65 : 
against the bigotry of Pellisson in writing a history of Louis XIV. 

^D. XIV. 517, Usson, F. 

"Cf. D. 1. 77, Abimelech, C; D. V. 275, Concini, G; O. D. II. 14, 
ii; O. D. III. 732; O. D. II. 53: Here Bayle is speaking of the differ- 



History 47 

Even the evidence of monuments, inscriptions and medals 
becomes uncertain, since partisan writers dare to falsify such 
testimony to suit their needs.^^ Bayle speaks with particular 
acerbity of the juggling with truth and the chaos which results 
in the case of so-called historians who describe contemporaneous 
happenings. Often, for political reasons, they write false 
accounts, spreading them far and wide, and later, when the 
motives for dissimulation are no longer in force, no one is 
sufficiently interested to rectify these narratives. Or if there 
is an attempt to correct the errors, it is apt to be too late; the 
false account has already too strong a hold.^^ The dishonesty 
of those who compose such stories is criminal. 

Ce n'est pas assez que de comparer ces indlgnes ecrivains a des harpies, 
qui salissent tout ce qu'elles touchent: on peut dire que ce sont des 
bourreaux qui tordent le cou, les bras et les jambes aux faits historiques, 
et meme qui les leur coupent quelquefois, et leur en appliquent des 
postiches ; et cela presque au moment meme qu'un evenement est sorti 
du sein de ses causes, et que les exploits d'une bataille ne font que de 
naitre . . 

L'on a dit autrefois des Muses qu'elles se prostituaient meme a des 
esclaves; c'est ce qu'on peut dire principalement de celle qui preside a 
I'Histoire : c'est un veritable ' scortum triobolare,' qui se tient sur les 



ences of Protestants and Catholics, and his attitude is distinctly partisan; 
O. D. III. 219, xxii : Bayle's remark in this case closes an argument 
de circonstance. 

^ D. IV. 21, Botero, C. Apropos of a picture which was published as 
a faithful representation of a certain triumphal column which the pope 
Clement VIII erected, a column which, as a matter of fact, never existed, 
Bayle says : " Et quand on se voit attrape par la montre de ces pretendus 
monumens publics, on ne sait plus a qui se fier : on ne sait si les medailles, 
si les inscriptions, si tels autres monumens, sont plus sinceres qu'un 
historien a gages et a pension annuelle; et voila une confirmation du 
pyrrhonisme historique." 

Cf . D. XV 160, Dissert, sur les Lihelles Diff., IX : " Car si I'antiquite 
greque, romaine, persane, carthaginoise, etc., en avait use comme Ton en 
use anjourd'hui, ils auraient bien de la peine a nous prouver quelque 
chose, en se fortifiant meme du secours des inscriptions et des medailles, 
monumens que les modernes emploient impunement pour satisfaire leurs 
caprices, sans se fonder sur un fait reel," 

"Cf. D. XV. 188, Dissert, sur les Lihelles Diff., G. Bayle speaks of 
the need of refuting satires and libels in cases when they have been 
given some credence as history. 



48 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

grands chemins, et qui se livre au premier venu pour un morceau de 
pain.^ 

It is well that printing is only a modern invention, for had the 
ancients possessed this means doubtless there would be the same 
multitude of varied accounts which makes modern history so 
confused.^^ 

Contemporary writers not only say things which are false, but 
they leave out things which are true. It sometimes happens 
that an unusual fact is not put on record until long after the 
event happened, and then only in a single account.^^ Bayle 
suggests that the omission may be intentional and that again 
partiality may be at the root of this evil.^^ He adds that there 



"^ D. XV. 158, Dissert, sur les Libelles Diff., VIII ; cf. all of sections 
VIII and IX in this reference. 

^® Bayle comments on the respect which the ancients showed for the 
dignity of history, in not allowing history to be written except by those 
who were equipped by their birth and merit; cf. D. XV. 159. History, 
he says, should be written by those whom the state chooses, not by any 
petty chroniclers; cf. D. XV. 157; O. D. I. 261, vii. He mentions the 
multitude of historical writers in his own day ; " Lucien, sans le savoir, 
a fait la peinture de notre siecle, lorsqui'il a parle d'une guerre qui 
avait produit un si grand nombre d'historiens, qu'on aurait dit que ce 
metier etait a la mode ; " D. XV. 159. 

The gazettes, says Bayle, add much to the confusion of modern history. 
For the various journalistic publications of his own day which deal with 
current events he has little sympathy. Although in one place he says 
in reference to gazettes: " C'est une lecture qui n'est pas inutile" (O. D. 
I. L. 117, Ixxiii.) and although elsewhere he grants that it may be worth 
while to consult them on account of the public documents reproduced 
by them (O. D. HI. 590-2, xlvii.), and on account of the dates given, 
which are usually accurate (O. D. III. 591, xlvii; O. D. I. 338, i.), yet 
he feels partiality dominates in these pieces, battles are reported won 
or lost according to the partisan interest of the writer, and the historian 
seeking information finds little on which he may rely (D. I. 31, Abderame, 
G; D. I. 253, Agesilaus (2) ; D. II. 161, Apafi, D; D. VII. 330, Guicciardin, 
B ; D. XV. 179, Dissert, sur les Libelles Diff., B ; O. D. I. 338, i ; O. D. 
I, L. 169, cxxiii; O. D. H. 13, iii; O. D. HI. 732, ii; Gigas, 13-14 
18-29, 72-4). The candor of the Romans, who admitted the victories of 
Hannibal, brings out by striking contrast the duplicity of these moderns 
(Gigas, 21-2, 28-9). For a characterization of three particular gazettes 
cf. O. D. IV. 595, xliv; on the gazettes of Holland cf. O. D. I. L. 175, 
cxxxi. 

'°D. IV. 505, Cassius (4), H. 

^ Cf. D. I. 459, Alpaide, B. Bayle suggests that the silence of con- 



History 49 

are, however, cases where contemporary writers could not sup- 
press certain facts with any hope of keeping them from the 
knowledge of the world, and, on that account, cases where the 
silence of contemporaries about an event is good evidence that 
it is not authentic. There is, then, a limit to the truth-twisting 
of these men, but a limit that is imposed rather by the exigencies 
of the situation than by any desire to avoid partiality. 

Satire and flattery are the two pests of history.^^ Of these 
two Bayle states that the former is the more pernicious, for 
readers accept the remarks provoked by such a spirit with more 
sympathy; flattery is base, but satire may be interpreted as 
prompted by a love of liberty. ^^ A historian who practices flat- 
tery often fails to convince. Such an author by his exaggera- 
tions may make those he flatters ridiculous,^* and may so irritate 
the reader as to drive him to the opposite extreme and render 
him unwilling to admit any virtue in the personage described. ^^ 
Satire more often attains its end, and so is the more to be 
deplored. Bayle protests vigorously against the satirical spirit, 
and against the particular violence which historians show when 
they write of events in which they have had some personal con- 



temporary writers in regard to a certain historic detail may be attributed 
to their fear of displeasing the sovereign. 

^D. X, 298, Marillac (2), A: "la satire et la flatterie sont les deux 
pestes de I'histoire. . . ." 

Cf. D. XL 598-9, Pericles, H : Bayle speaks of the deplorable effects 
of satire and flattery. He quotes Plutarch and points out again how 
this partiality results in augmenting le pyrrhonisme historique. He adds 
that the abuse is particularly common in his own day. Cf. D. IX. 448, 
Louis XHL F. 

^ Cf. Tacitus, Hist. Lib. I. cap. I: " Quippe adulation! foedum crimen 
servitutis, malignitati falsa species libertatis inest." Bayle quotes this 
and states that he is merely following the idea of Tacitus : D. X. 298-9, 
Marillac, A; D. X. 527, Morgues, L. 

Cf. O. D. L 609, ix: Bayle is quite inconsistent, for he states in this 
case that flattery is more enduring than satire. " II y a je ne sgai quelle 
fatalite qui fait prevaloir la Flaterie sur la Satyre, generalement parlant; 
de sorte que d'une infinite de Libelles qui auront paru contre les Grandeurs 
du monde, a peine s'en trouve-t-il un, cent ans apres, pendant que les 
Relations qui les flattent, ou qui les epargnent, sont entre les mains de 
toute la terre." 

^ O. D. III. 64, xcvii. 

"" O. D. HI. 64, xcvi. 



50 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

cern. A writer who is ordinarily moderate and modest tends 
to give way to his feeHngs when he composes a history which 
touches on some one Vv^ho has persecuted him, and his history 
then becomes unreHable on account of his bias. And the nar- 
rative of a man who is naturally choleric will be all the worse. 
A historian should leave to his readers the matter of praising 
or blaming; let him occupy himself solely with presenting the 
facts.36 

There is another respect in which partiality is an obstacle to 
the historian. He must not only strive to get away from his 
own prejudices, but he must cope with the prejudices of those 
upon whose evidence he relies, to a certain extent, for his 
material, those who have been eye-witnesses of events, and those 
who have been actually engaged in the making of history. Evi- 
dently it is such people who are the least inclined to give unbiased 
reports. 

The value of the testimony of actors in the historical drama 
and of those who have observed the drama from nearby is 



^D. XIV. 175, Timee, L. On the malice of historians, cf. O. D. I. 
521. Cf. D. XIII. 135, Savonarola, H : Bayle suggests that a historian 
may take sides provided he has first given a faithful narration of the 
events. 

For satires proper, that is such writings as are frankly partisan in 
character and do not pretend to the dignity of history, various remarks 
by Bayle (Cf. D. II. 117, Annat, A: ihid. 119, B; D. VII. 185, Gournai; 
O. D. I. 677, vi; etc.) and particularly his Dissertation sur les Libelles 
Diffamatoires (D. XV. 148-89) indicate that he has no sympathy. He 
deplores the malignity of the authors of such productions, who do not 
hesitate to attack the most upright (D. XV. 154), and he asserts that 
satires sometimes have a grievous effect in the state, causing war and 
sedition (D. XV. 172-3). It is nonsense to claim that satires and libels 
check vice because they are a menace to evil-doers, for there is no 
lack of writings of this sort, yet the world goes on in its wicked way 
(D. XV. 155, vii.). Concerning paneg>^rics, as such, Bayle is more 
lenient. A certain license may be granted to eulogists and they may 
indulge in more laudation and flourish than a historian, although positive 
falsehood cannot be allowed (D. III. 200, Baudouin, E; cf. D. X. 496, 
Montgaillard, D). The custom of leaving out dates which concern the 
events of the hero's life is objectionable, and the only reason for this 
lack 6i chronological accuracy is indolence (D. IV. 311, Calderinus (2), 
D). The flattery with which Epitres Dedicatoires are crammed displeases 
our author (O. D. IV. 588; D. IV. 430, Capriata, E). 



History 5 1 

undoubtedly great.^^ When an equitable writer who has lived 
in the house of a princess as one of her suite gives evidence 
as to the character of the lady, his remarks have weight.^^ A 
man who has lived in close touch with a tyrant can write a 
book, full of enlightening details, which will be of great use to 
the future historian.^^ 

But the drawback in the case of such testimony is the prejudice 
of the witness. This same biographer of a tyrant may be trying 
to make a hero of him, and the intelligent reader needs to be 
on his guard. ^^ There is danger in believing what is said by 
those who have belonged to households of the great, particularly 
if they have been favorites with their masters ; such men, out 
of gratitude, suppress the details which do not reflect credit on 
their lords. *^ Statesmen, when questioned about events in which 
they are concerned, are inclined to suppress inconvenient truths.*^ 
A historian must be cautious in giving weight to the accusations 
which controversialists advance against their contemporaries; 
such accusations must not be considered unless there is satis- 
factory proof that they are true."^^ Even the edicts and public 
declarations of sovereigns are unreliable as evidence, for they 
are apt to contain statements which are not based in any sense 
on the facts of a case, but are introduced on account of the 
political needs of the moment. Thus, when a king is obliged to 
treat with rebels who have fought against him and proved their 
strength, he may declare in the edict of peace that these men 



^Cf. D. I. 269, Agis, D; D. X. 216-7, Marcellin; O. D. I. 80; O. D. I. 
29s; cf. Bayle's remark on a writer who had travelled much and visited 
various courts of Europe : " II a raison de pretendre que les lumiere^ 
qu'on peut acquerir en voyageant sont tres-utiles a ceux qui composent 
une histoire." 

'^ D. XIV. 518, Usson, R 

"^D. XII. 27, Philistus, D. 

*°D. VII. 56, Geldenhaur, K; O. D. III. 909; cf. D. XIV. 367, Vergerius 
(2), K. Bayle states that when a writer publishes details of the private 
life of a monarch which are scandalous in character, he should have 
proofs to present, else he should be given no credence. 

^ D. VII. 56-7, Geldenhaur, L. 

*"D. III. 410-11, Beze, V; cf. especially: " Vraiment un historien 
debiterait de beaux contes, s'il s'amusait a rapporter toutes les injures 
personnelles que les controversistes se chantent, de quelque religion qu'ils 
soient." 



52 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

have done nothing against the interests of their ruler, but it is 
obvious that such a statement is made merely because the other 
side demands it and has the power to enforce the demand. 
Similarly the edicts of a court of justice may be colored by the 
practical needs of a situation.*^ Prejudice, also, is apt to be 
at the bottom of the reputed death-bed confessions of persons 
who have played a part in history. Bayle does not believe that 
a man who has kept secret all his life some fact discreditable 
to him, will reveal it in his last moments, and he states that the 
reports of such confessions are frequently popular stories, in- 
vented for political or personal reasons.** 

Finally this plague of partiality presents itself in a third form. 
If the historian should conquer his own prejudices and should 
cope successfully with the biased statements which make up a 
part of his testimony, he still has to encounter the partiality of 
the readers to whom his work is presented. The public at large 
judge a history in the light of their own preconceived notions. 
They do not take the same trouble to be fair which the author 
may have taken and they will declare those details false which 
bring dishonor on their own party.*^ They are unwilling to 
tolerate the frankness which would impel a writer to admit some 
fact damaging to his own side. 

II y a beaucoup de gens qui souhaitent qu'un historien de leur parti 
imite les joueurs de piquet, qui ne gardent que les bonnes cartes, et 
mettent dans leur ecart les mauvaises qui leur etaient venues.*® 

Evidently the general public is not marked by that absence of 
passion which is as necessary for judging a history aright as it 
is for composing one*^ — and evidently the equitable historian 
will not easily satisfy the people. 

*' D. X. 306-7, Marillac, K; cf. O. D. III. 1026, vii. 

**D. VII. 373-5, Guise (3), F. 

*° D. IV. 427-9, Capriata, C. Bayle states that he echoes the sentiments 
of Capriata on this point. Cf. D. X. 526-7, Morgues, L: On the way 
Patin, who is prejudiced against Richelieu, welcomes a history which 
abuses Richelieu. 

" D. XII. 506, Remond, D. 

*'^Cf. D. IV. 429, Capriata, C: ". . . si Ton peut dire que pour com- 
poser une histoire il faut etre vide de toute passion, on peut dire aussi 
qu'il faut I'etre pour juger pertinemment du travail de I'histoire." 

On the difficulties which a historian encounters in the prejudices of the 
reading public, cf . D. III. 304, Bembus, O : " II y a longtemps qu'on 



History 5 3 

He will experience especial difficulties in satisfying the ruling 
powers. An author who writes the history of contemporary 
kings or of those who have only recently died is liable to get 
into trouble with these monarchs or their followers if he tells 
unpleasant truths.*^ In such a case a perplexing alternative 
presents itself : either it is necessary to disregard truth, which 
is against the laws of history, or it is necessary to irritate the 
powers that be, which is against the laws of prudence. The 
better way, suggests Bayle, is to avoid the question completely 
by not treating such subjects.*^ In speaking of the dangers run 
by a historian who injures the honor of a powerful people, 
he says : 

Rien n'est plus beau dans la theorie que les idees du legislateur des his- 
toriens^": il leur commande de n'oser dire rien qui soit faux, et d'oser 
dire tout ce qui est vrai ; mais ce sont des lois impracticables, tout comme 
celles du Decalogue dans I'etat ou le genre humain se trouve.^^ 

Even when partiality is avoided, if that ever happens, there 
still remain many obstacles in the way of the careful writer 

a mis entre les difficultes du metier de I'historien, la coutume qu'ont les 
lecteurs de prendre pour des mensonges les actions sublimes dont ils se 
sentent incapables." 

^Cf. D. VII. 465, Haillan, E. 

*^Cf. D. III. 165, Basta (2), B; D. IV. 376, Camden, K; D. IV. 428, 
Capriata, C; D. VII. 465, Haillan, E; D. X. 261, Mariana, D. 

'^** Bayle refers to Cicero. 

"'D. III. 548, Bonfadius, D. 

Bayle refers several times to these laws of history, ne quid falsi audeat, 
ne quid veri non audeat. Cf. O. D. IV. 744, cxcvii, when he mentions 
them in excusing himself for speaking freely in his dictionary of certain 
great men; and D. XII. 505, Remond, D, where he names these precepts 
"les deux grands statuts du metier." 

Bayle even yields a point as to truth-telling in the case of histories 
of contemporary rulers. Cf. O. D. I. 114, viii : " Mille raisons veulent 
que pendant la vie des Souverains on ne public pas leurs defauts, et Ton 
seroit trop farouche et d'une humeur trop critique si Ton ne souffroit 
pas sans murmure qu'on les flattat." 

He suggests in one case, O. D. I. 158, viii, that the sacred name of 
monarch should prevent historians from delving into the gallantries of 
a royal family, at least until long after their time; but elsewhere, D. 
XIV. 517, Usson, F, he excuses a historian for divulging a scandal con- 
cerning a contemporary princess — a scandal which was, however, notori- 
ous — and he also suggests here that there is no reason why the dignity 
of princes should save them from injurious truths. 



54 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

who wishes to produce a history that is accurate and complete. 
History is complicated. There are innumerable facts to be con- 
trolled and it is by no means easy to get at them.^^ Bayle refers 
frequently to the need of exactness and completeness.^^ He has 
hot words of blame for those who allow their imagination to 
make up for the documentary evidence which they are too care- 
less to seek. He attacks fiercely a certain historian, Guevara, 
who dared to invent historic details out of whole cloth and use 
them as authentic, and who later excused himself on the basis 

Of precautions taken by rulers in the effort to guard against the 
publication of historic facts which reflect discredit on them, Bayle says 
that, after all, they are useless. Time is sure to lay bare the flatteries 
of historians and to prove the futility of the monarch's attempt to deceive 
posterity. It is also true that time may free historical characters from 
calumny. O. D. I. 397-8; cf. O. D. I. 279. 

''D. V. 449, Dejotarus, O; D. VIII. 205, Horace, A; D. IX. 295, 
Loges, F; D. X. 186, Mancinellus, B; D. XI. 280-1, Othon III, B. D; 
O. D. I. 185-6. 

^D. I. 260, Agesilaus (2), L; D. I. 463, Altaemps, A; D. IV. 540, 
Castalion, L; D. V. 283-4, Conon (2), A; D. VI. 248, Erfort, C; D. 
VIII. 344, Jean, A; D. X. 432-4, Micraelius, D; D. XV. 317-8, Eclair- 
cissement sur les Pyrrhoniens, V; O. D. I. 12; O. D. I 674; O. D. I. 
92, V; O. D. III. 547, xxvii, 549; cf. D. XIV. 440, Virgile (2), A: on 
the boldness of historians in confirming what is doubtful. 

Cf. O. D. I. 677, vi, where Bayle commends a book which gives details 
concerning the history of the Middle Ages. This subject, he adds, is 
so hard and there is such difficulty in handling the documents that his- 
torians neglect it far too much. 

There are passing comments on the need of exactness and complete- 
ness in biographies. Cf. D. II. 568, Aurelien, A; D. III. 439, Bigot (2), 
G; D. V. 124, Chatel (2), G; D. VII. 461, Haillan; D. X. 316, Marot, 
E; D. XVI. 25-6, Avert, sur 2^ Ed. There are no remarks worth noting 
on biography as a literary genre. 

Bayle mentions a number of documents of miscellaneous character 
which may offer material that is useful to a historian ; O. D. I. 221 : 
he suggests that a poem may contain valuable details of fact : " Cela 
rappelle dans ma memoire ce que j'ai oui dire a des gens de fort bon 
sens, qu'un Recueil de Chansons est une Piece tres-utile a un Historic- 
graphe;" D. II. 506-7, Atticus, H: A genealogy of the Roman magis- 
trates would be useful, Bayle says, but he does not apply the remark 
directly to history; D. V. 313, Craterius, A: a collection of the decrees 
of the people of Athens would have settled many questions if it had 
not been lost ; O. D. I. 605 : A collection of the lives of the favorites 
of various rulers might contain considerable information, if such a book 
should be written. Cf. O. D. IV. 736. 



History 55 

that history was so uncertain that a little extra invention did 
no harm. 

La licence qu'il se donna de falsifier tout ce que bon lui semblait, et 
de debiter comme des faits veritables, ce qui n'etait que les inventions 
de son cerveau creux, approche de celle des faiseurs de romans. . . 
C'etait done un empoisonneur public et un seducteur; et, dans le tribunal 
de la republique des lettres, il meritait le chatiment des profanes et des 
sacrileges, car il violait ce qu'il y a de plus sacre dans I'art historique." 

Historians who have succeeded in making a reputation for 
themselves must be especially careful, for their authority is con- 
siderable and many writers depend upon them for their facts.^^ 

From time to time Bayle discusses some of the problems 
which come up in connection with this matter of accuracy. 
When a historian treats of a period earlier than his own he may 
derive valuable information from historians of that period. 
Even if these writers are rough and ignorant men they can be 
relied upon to furnish useful material, for the very fact that 
they are describing what happened in their own day means that 
they have recorded many details which would occur only to 
those who have the events fresh in mind.^^ Bayle points out 
the fact that certain histories of current events in his own day 
ofifer valuable data for a historian and collect fugitive documents 
worth having.^^ 

Popular tradition offers a perplexing problem to the historian 
who is searching for facts. As soon as events take place a 
multitude of stories concerning them spring up among the people. 
Often false reports are spread at the same time as the true ones 
and sometimes the false precede the true, so that a mass of 



^ D. VII. 322, 3, Guevara, B ; cf . ibid. D. 

On historians who permit their imagination — and partiality — to sway 
them, cf. O. D. III. 758 : " Voila, Monsieur, les illusions a quoi s'exposent 
les Historiens en mille rencontres, lorsqu'au lieu de consulter les pieces 
originales, les actes publics, les preuves certaines des faits, ils s'abandon- 
nent a leur imagination, et aux jalousies nationales." 

"D. XII. 375, Quellenec, A. Apropos of Mezerai. 

" Cf. O. D. I. 222, ii ; O. D. I. 32 ; cf. ref . to this art. of the Nouvelles 
in Gigas, 691, J. Le Clerc, note i ; cf . also D. XI. 359, Papesse, A. 

"^^O. D. I. 588, vii. Here Bayle refers to a Relation Historique de ce 
qui s'est fait par tout le monde, depuis le mois de Juin, 1685, (a hchk 
published in 1686), and, O. D. I. 628, i, to a Histoire abregee de I'Europe 
pour le mois de Juillet, etc. (published in 1686). 



56 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

tradition is handed down where the fictitious and the real facts 
are mingled together and where the one kind has just as much 
the authority of age as the other. Sometimes the false report 
is spread and is never followed by the true one.^^ Bayle com- 
ments especially on the extreme difficulty of getting at the facts 
of a tradition concerning some miraculous happening and on 
the futility of conjectures in cases where the circumstances are 
not well known. The reports of various authors conflict, the 
learned have one story, the people another, pious frauds abound. 
Since there are so many discrepant accounts about contemporary 
events of the sort, it is not surprising that it should be hard 
to clear up a tradition of this kind concerning an earlier period.^* 
Reports are exaggerated more and more as they are spread 
about ; 

le dernier qui parle est presque tou jours le plus decisif et le plus 
charge de faits. II semble qu'il s'agisse d'une emplette d'encan, oil Ton 
encherit les uns sur les autres, parce que la marchandise n'est adjugee 
qu'au plus offrant et dernier encherisseur.*" 

There is, naturally enough, little evidence of which a historian 
can make use in such traditions. It is certain that the fact that 
a majority of the people believe in a story proves nothing as 
to its authenticity.^^ A careful man who has a tradition called 
to his attention will find out vv^hether it has ever been put into 
writing or whether it is merely a report which has come down 
orally for generations, and if the latter is the case he will dis- 
regard it.^^ The authority of traditions which attack those who 
have incurred popular hatred on account of their oppressions is 
particularly 'doubtful. Here the question of partiality comes up 
once more. The people welcome any report which reflects dis- 
credit on such persons, and do not investigate its source. Then, 
as generations pass, these traditions shift until they become abso- 



■^D. XIV. 518, Usson, F. 

^* D. IV. 577-80, Cataldus, B. C. Bayle protests against the audacity of 
a man who wrote an extravagant account of a certain miraculous event 
and claimed the account authentic. 

«»D. VIII. 50, Henri III. S. 

«'0. D. III. 205, xii. 

^^Cf. D. VI. 279, Esope (2), B. Of traditions " touchant la vie d'un 
particulier." 



History 57 

lutely unreliable.^^ There are only two cases in which the 
reports that spread among the people call for consideration. 

II ne faut jamais faire cet honneur a de tels bruits qu'en ces deux cas : 
Tun, lorsqu'ils sont tres-vraisemblables ; I'autre, lorsqu'on les veut charger 
d'une note de reprobation, c'est-a-dire, les refuter et les siffler. En ce 
dernier cas, il est tres-utile de rapporter ces sortes de traditions, parce 
que rien n'est plus propre a inspirer de la defiance contre les rapports 
de la renommee, que de faire voir a son siecle la sotte et ridicule credulite 
des precedens.'* 

There may be instances where a historian is under obligation, 
in the interest of completeness, to narrate events which he him- 
self believes false.^^ Bayle states that it may become the his- 
torian's duty to give an account of certain prodigies or miracles 
which are generally reputed to have accompanied some event. 
If the best authorities and the best historic monuments attest 
the authenticity of such a marvel the new historian must record 
it faithfully. The record of such superstitions is curious and 
instructive : 

un Historien qui raconte la terreur qu'une Comete, qu'une eclipse, qu'une 
inondation exciterent dans un pais, a cause qu'on les prenoit pour des 
presages sinistres, et qui n'oublie pas les processions, et les autres 
ceremonies religieuses qui furent ordonnees pour detourner ces presages, 
ne sort nullement de la sphere d'Historien, car ce sont des faits, aussi 
curieux, aussi instructifs que les batailles, que les sieges, que les traitez 
d'alliance.'^ 

The historian is of course at liberty to state that he believes the 
prodigy utterly false. A writer who announces his skepticism 
does well, for he sometimes saves his readers from being mis- 
led.®^ No harm would come of his expressing his unbelief every 
time that such a case is referred to. But on that Bayle does 



''D. XI. 473, Paul II. D. 

•'*D. III. 51-2, Balde, C. Cf. D. VI. 157, Eucolpius, B. 

®^ Cf. O. D. III. 280: "les plus celebres Historiens de I'antiquite ont 
reconnu qu'il y avoit certaines choses qu'ils n'avoient nul droit de suprimer 
quoi qu'ils ne les crussent pas." 

"«0. D. III. 282, Ixiii. 

^■^ Cf . the following remark apropos of the same question : " Tout bon 
historien qui raconte ce qu'il juge fabuleux, y joint un on dit ou quelque 
clause qui temoigne encore plus nettement ce qu'il en pense;" etc. D. 
VII. 232, Gregoire ler, R. 



58 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

not insist, and he is inclined to be satisfied with a general state- 
ment at the outset that the writer does not vouch for all the 
traditions which he thinks it v/orth while to set forth.^® 

Although these stories of miracles must be heeded when they 
are widespread, the demand for completeness in history-writing 
does not require treating them if they are little known. Tradi- 
tions concerning miraculous or other events having no authentic 
basis and preserved in no written record may well be ignored. 
Yet even where there is no written account of a prodigy, the 
absence of a more authoritative basis may be due to the reluc- 
tance of contemporary writers to mention a detail which would 
bring them into disrepute with the ruling powers. On such an 
instance the historian must weigh the evidence and, if he thinks 
it worth while, present the tradition, explaining the circum- 
stances.^^ 

But while the narration of prodigies is allowable and even to 
be recommended under some conditions, historians are inclined 
to carry the practice much too far. Much untruth has been 
brought into history by their extreme readiness to record and 
affirm marvellous happenings. "^^ Historians seem to have a par- 
ticular weakness for such tales. 

Je ne sai s'ils croient que leurs Histoires paroitroient trop simples, s'ils 
ne meloient aux choses arrivees selon le cours du monde, quantite de 
prodiges et d'accidens surnaturels : ou s'ils esperent que par cette sorte 
d'assaisonemens, qui reviennent fort au gout naturel de rhomme, ils 
tiendront toujours en haleine leur Lecteur, en lui fournissant toujours 
de quoi admirer; ou bien s'ils se persuadent que la rencontre de ces 
coups miraculeux signalera leur Histoire dans le tems a venir; mais 
quoi qu'il en soit, on ne peut nier que les Historiens ne se plaisent 
extremement a compiler tout ce qui sent le miracle." 

This tendency has a bearing on the question of the relation of 
poetry and history. Those who claim that the relation is a 



^^ O. D. III. 281. Bayle adds that a discussion of how much fact there 
is in such traditions is permissible, but that the discussion must not 
turn into partisan controversy, where the tradition is supported or 
opposed according to the prejudice of the writer. 

"'O. D. III. 280. 

''Ibid. 

'^O. D. III. 10, II. 



History 59 

close and a desirable one, and that to be a historian one must 
be a poet, are exposed in this case to the attacks of critics who 
may say that here indeed these two genres have a common char- 
acteristic since they both display this weakness for the mar- 
vellous/^ History should not be so characterised. The intro- 
duction of marvellous and supernatural elements such as a 
reader has a right to expect in a piece of poetry, has no place 
in history ; it conflicts with the simplicity and naturalness which 
must be found in historical writing. Bayle criticises Herodotus 
for not recognising this distinction between poetry and history 
and for bringing the miraculous into his work.'^^ 

A history should be written in a style that is clear and natural ; 

les veritables regies de I'art Historique . . . demandent beaucoup 
d'ordre, un stile net, court, simple, sans affectation, sans figures, ni 
autres ornemens oratoires . . /* 

Various references show that Bayle is inclined to insist on clear- 
ness as a prime requisite."^^ It is necessary to bring out the 



"O. D. Ill, II, V. On the love of historians for the marvellous, cf. 
O. D. Ill, 62, xciv, 64, xcvi, 66; O. D. I. 626, vii. 

Cf. O. D. I. 531, ii, where Bayle speaks of the complaint that there 
are no longer any prodigies and marvellous happenings in his day as 
there were in the ages gone by, and says that future historians will 
supply the want and credit the seventeenth century with as many marvels 
as the previous centuries. 

^^ D. XII. 358, Psammitichus, B. On the unreliability of historians who 
report prodigies, cf. D. VI. 160, Ephore, A. Bayle quotes Seneca here. 

'*0. D. I. 202, iv. 

"Cf. D. IV. 426, Capriata: Bayle praises Capriata as a historian and 
says : " II expose les f aits avec une grande nettete, il en developpe les 
motifs, et les instrumens, et les suites . . ." D. XII. 504, Remond, 
D : " Elle (history) demande un homme qui ait . , . un style noble, 
clair et serre . . ." D. X. 433, Micraelius, D: " Un historien exact 
choisit ses paroles avec tant de soin, qu'il ne donne pas a deviner a 
ses lecteurs si les assiegeans se retirerent d'eux-memes, ou s'ils attendi- 
rent qu'on les attaquat." 

O. D. I. 588, vi: " L'abdication de cette Reine (Christine) se voit ici 
narree fort nettement; c'est une des bonnes qualites de cet Auteur 
(Pufendorf) que la nettete d'esprit: son style est noble, grave, et coulant, 
et n'a point d'affectation." 

O. D. I. L. 24. "II (Duverdier) conserve fort le caractere d'un 
Historien, enchainant bien les matieres en decouvrant les motifs, et 
ecrivant avec beaucoup de nettete et de clarte. 



6o The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

striking traits of the personages described, in such a way as to 
give the greatest enlightenment to the readers. "^^ As to concise- 
ness, Bayle suggests in one place that a historian who is notably 
concise affords less instruction than one who is blameworthy for 
being prolix ;'^^ but elsewhere he suggests that too many details 
may obscure the really important facts. '^^ There is a knack of 
indicating details briefly, so that valuable information is given 
without lengthiness."^^ The desire of historians to appear learned 
sometimes makes them indulge in long digressions which intro- 
duce a multitude of details having little relation to the text. 
Such, for example, would be the remarks of one who reports 
the appearance of a comet, and goes on to discuss the influence 
of the heavenly bodies on human events. The practice is repre- 
hensible. Furthermore, the w^eight of these writers as chron- 
iclers of historical facts which they are supposed to have inves- 
tigated does not give authority to the statements made in 
digressions concerning other spheres of knowledge.^^ Since 
Bayle demands simplicity and lack of affectation he naturally 
does not demand polish. But he seems to think that attention 
to details of euphony, the kind of attention paid by an orator 
to such matters, is permissible, provided it is not extreme.*^ 

Although simplicity is so desirable in a historian's style, a 
reasonable effort to produce vivid and striking narrative is to 
be recommended. The power of expression which belongs to 
an orator or a poet may be most useful here, provided, of course, 



'' D. V. 559, Domitia Longina, A. Cf . ibid., C 

"D. XV. 150, I. Dissert, sur les Lihelles Diff. III. The ancient his- 
torians were too concise, says Bayle. Cf. D. II. 271, Archelaus (4), K. 

'' D. XII. 38, Phlegon, A. 

"D. II. 271, Archelaus (4), K. 

'"O. D. III. II, vi. Cf. D. XIV. no, Theopompe, F. where Bayle 
objects vigorously to a criticism of Tacitus and declares the attack on 
his digressions unjust and extravagant. 

®^D. XIV. 107, Theopompe: Concerning care as to euphony and har- 
mony in style Bayle says: "il y a 'sans doute je ne sais quelle petitesse 
dans ces sortes d'affectations, lorsque la grandeur et la majeste du 
sujet doit attirer toute I'attention de Tecrivain," But he adds that a 
moderate care in avoiding " la rencontre des voyelles " is allowable. 



History 6 1 

that flourish and pomp are avoided.^^ Bayle has considerable 
praise for Maimbourg on the score of the interesting way in 
which he writes history. He states that it would be a great 
boon to the republic of letters if those who have much more 
learning and exactness than Maimbourg should be able to give 
their writings the same attractiveness.^^ It is true, of course, 
that the vividness which a writer is able to put into his account 
depends much upon the subject matter he has to deal with. 
War, battles, revolutions, brilliant and stirring events — ^such are 
the themes which awaken the eloquence of the author and the 
interest of the reader. 

Un historien qui n'a point de grands evenemens a decrire s'endort sur 
son ouvrage, et fait bailler ses lecteurs ; mais une guerre civile, deux 
ou trois conspirations, autant de batailles, les memes chefs tantot abattus, 
tantot releves, aiguisent sa plume, echauffent son imagination, et tiennent 
tou jours en haleine ceux qui lisent. Je crois franchement que si on 
lui commandait de faire I'histoire d'un regne pacifique, et, tout d'une 
piece, il se plaindrait de son sort a peu pres comme Caligula se plaignit 
de ce que sous son empire il n'arrivait pas de grands malheurs . 
Son ouvrage est un vaisseau qui ne vogue jamais mieux qu'en temps de 
tourmente: la tempete est son bon vent: le calme lui est aussi contraire 
qu'a un vaisseau effectif.** 



^" Cf . supra, pp. 25, 26. Cf . D. XIV. 106, Theopompe, C : in this case 
Bayle brings up the question whether orators and poets are fitted to be 
historians, but adds no comment of his own except to suggest there 
is considerable danger of a flowery style in histories written by such 
men. 

'"D. X. 137, Maimbourg, D; cf. O. D. II. 19, iv. Cf. O. D. I. 27, 
iii. Here Bayle suggests that perhaps Maimbourg has found " le secret 
de donner a I'Histoire I'air du Roman, et au Roman Tair de I'Histoire, 
ce qui n'est pas un don mediocre . . ." 

^*D. VIII. 92, Hercule, R. Bayle adds that the taste which prefers 
accounts of military prowess to descriptions of the virtues men show 
in time of peace is depraved, but very wide spread. He deplores the 
same tendency to prefer the brilliant to the solid in the case of poets 
and orators and in the case of the public to whom these writers appeal. 
Cf. O. D. I. 587, vi, where Bayle says the exploits of the great Gus- 
tavus Adolphus make a fine subject for a history. 

On the question of how a historian may be helped by the nature of 
the subject he deals with, cf. D. VI. 628, Furius, D: "II arrive aux 
historiens la meme chose qu'a un voyageur : ils rencontrent de temps 
en temps certaines matieres qui sont comme des bourbiers, ou comme 



62 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

But, however much a writer is helped or hindered by his subject 
matter, Bayle evidently thinks that he must devote attention to 
the vividness of his narrative.^^ 



un chemin uni, large, bien pave, etc." But here Bayle refers to a case 
where a certain event is useful to a partisan historian in enabling him 
to reflect credit on the historical personage whom he favors. The same 
event is, of course, awkward for the writers on the other side. 

*^It does not strike Bayle that the speeches attributed by historians 
to generals whose exploits they narrate, Thucydidean speeches, that is, 
lend any vividness to an account. His only comment on such harangues 
is as to their unreliability. D. IV. 507, Cassius (4), L. 



VII 

SCHOLARSHIP 

For the writer of the Dictionnaire Historique et Critique 
scholarship is of course a matter of extreme importance. Bayle 
has a high regard for learning, and for the erudite critic who 
is occupied with collating facts and eliminating errors in the 
world of things learned. He is alert to defend the enthusiasms 
of scholars for the fine points of their trade, and he has a 
variety of comments to make as to how scholars shall maintain 
a standard of excellence commensurate with the dignity of their 
calling. 

It is in the advance notice published by Bayle concerning the 
aims of his own dictionary that he takes up the question of 
the utility of that critical research work in which so much 
attention is paid to a minute exactness. He grants that such 
labors are eminently impractical, that they have no value in 
supplying daily bread. Indeed were man an entirely reasonable 
creature he would concern himself only with the salvation of 
his soul and with procuring the amount of nourishment neces- 
sary to keep the soul allied to the body during his allotted days. 
But, things mundane being as they are, it is a fact that man 
finds interest and pleasure in study, as well as in Belles Lettres 
and the arts. 

II faut done, malgre qu'on en ait, que Ton m'accorde qu'il y a une 
infinite de productions de I'esprit humain qui sont estimees, non pas 
a cause de leur necessite, mais a cause qu'elles nous divertissent ; et 
sur ce pied-la n'est-il pas juste de remarquer les faussetes des auteurs, 
puisqu'il y a tant de gens qui se plaisent a savoir la verite, jusque dans 
les choses ou leur fortune est la moins interessee? 

N'est-il pas certain qu'un cordonnier, qu'un meunier, qu'un jardinier, 
sont infiniment plus necessaires a un etat que les plus habiles peintres 
ou sculpteurs, qu'un Michel Ange, ou qu'un cavalier Bernin? N'est-il 
pas vrai que le plus chetif magon est plus necessaire, dans une ville, 
que le plus excellent chronologue ou astronome, qu'un Joseph Scaliger 
ou qu'un Copernic? On fait neanmoins infiniment plus de cas du travail 
de ces grands hommes, dont on se pourrait fort bien passer, que du 



64 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

travail absolument necessaire de ces artisans. Tant il est vrai qu'il 
y a bien des choses dont on ne regie le prix que par rapport a un honnete 
divertissement, ou a un simple ornement de I'ame/ 

The utility of learning, then, is nil, as far as practical consid- 
erations go. But it is in the nature of man to take an interest 
in the details of erudition, his truth-seeking instinct makes him 
want to know things that have no material effect on his daily 
life. Certainly Bayle believes this instinct worth catering to, 
certainly he approves this high ideal of Veritas. He adds, in 
the same dissertation, that critical work is of real moral benefit. 
Man is humbled when he is brought face to face with the vanity 
of the human intelligence, when his attention is called to the 
innumerable faults of men of learning.^ 

The value our author places on things erudite is evident from 
the emphasis with which he deplores the lack of interest in 
learning in his own time.^ A savant who has a vast collection 
of facts concerning chronology, geography, mythology, who can 
elucidate difficult passages in the ancient writers and explain 
grammatical points — such a man is no longer esteemed. It is 
the practice to stigmatize as pedantry the study of such details. 
Hence young men who have the gifts that would enable them 
to do scholarly work, turn away from an occupation which 



^D. XV. 239, Dissert, cont. le Pro jet, viii; cf. ihid. 238: "II faut 
avouer, d'autre cote, n' en deplaise a Ciceron, que toutes les beautes de 
la peinture, de la sculpture, de I'architecture, ne servent qu'au plaisir 
des yeux , et a donner une agreable admiration aux connaisseurs." Cf. 
D. XVI. I, 2, Pref. de la i^ Ed; especially : " II est . . . certain 
que la decouverte des erreurs (in fact) n'est importante ou utile ni a 
la prosperite de I'etat, ni a celle des particuliers." 

Cf . O. D. I. 125, iv ; especially : " Ce n'est done point par rapport a 
I'utilite publique qu'il faut juger si un Auteur merite des loiianges. 
Quelles que soient ses occupations, il faut regarder s'il a ete necessaire 
d'employer beaucoup d'esprit, pour arriver au point oti il est venu. C'est 
a cette regie que nous devons proportionner notre admiration et les 
loiianges que nous donnons a la beaute du genie." 

^D. XV. 241-3, Dissert, cont. le Pro jet, ix. 

Bayle also adds, ihid. p. 240, that the attention paid to the minute 
details of erudition concerning the ancients has had a fortuitous but 
most happy result. This kind of study inspired a certain veneration 
for the ancients, and on account of this spirit of reverence the splendid 
maxims of the ancients are received with particular respect. 

''D. X. 427, 8, Meziriac, C. 



Scholarship 6$ 

offers no chance of honor or renown. Certain beaux-esprits 
or would be beaux-esprits condemn the introduction into the 
writings of an author of citations from the ancients and of other 
comments which suggest learning. They even attack this prac- 
tice in the case of polished writers like Costar and Voiture. 
There is an excellent pretext for taking this position; it is easy 
to claim that there is more credit in thinking for oneself than 
in accumulating the thoughts of others.* Bayle admits the truth 
of the statement, but he holds that it is used as an excuse by 
men who are too superficial and indolent to devote themselves 
to learning, men who would be glad to make use of erudition 
if they possessed it. It is a shame that the condition of learning 
has fallen so low.^ 

Bayle's sympathy with the efforts of scholars and with their 
mode of life is apparent. He understands how a man of learn- 
ing may desire to lead a life of seclusion and how he may get 
a maximum of satisfaction out of devoting himself wholly to 
study .^ Those savants are indeed fortunate, he says, who can 
work fourteen or fifteen hours a day without injuring their 



*It is just enough to protest against such citations, says Bayle, when 
they are inapt and when they are introduced to prove what every one 
knows. 

^In this same reference (cf. supra, p. 64, n. 3) Bayle cites three 
instances of the unpopularity of things erudite. His remarks on the 
subject are provoked by the slight interest shown in a commentary 
on Apollodorus by Meziriac. He also refers to the publication of a 
translation of Homer to which the original is not added apparently 
because the Greek characters would turn away the reader, and he speaks 
of the small favor with which the public received a book treating the 
mistakes in erudition found in Telemaque. 

As to what the condition of learning is in his own day, Bayle is by 
no means consistent. He comments elsewhere, O. D. I. 180, ii, on the 
great interest that is being taken in archeological studies, and in the 
notice concerning his Dictionary, D. XV. 237-8, he claims that never 
before has more attention been paid to the correction of facts in things 
of erudition. This notice is dated May 5. 1690. The remarks in 
note 3, P- 64, were evidently written in 1700, for there is a reference 
to the Nouvelles de la Repuhlique des lettres du mois dernier and a 
foot note states that this number of the Nouvelles is the one for No- 
vember 1700. 

"D. Vni. 494, Junius (3), C. Cf. D. HI. 304, Bembus, U. 



66 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

health."^ And he indicates his own preference for that kind of 
existence which a true eruditus finds so attractive.® 

The advice which Bayle gives concerning the studies of his 
younger brother indicates his ideas as to what should be the 
training of a scholar and as to what should be the characteristics 
of the finished product.^ This matter of training he considers 
to be of the utmost importance; the education which a youth 
receives, in the formative period of his life, stamps him for- 
ever.^^ The method to be followed in education should be 
determined in every case by the needs of the individual; a 
teacher should understand the mentality of the student and his 
special requirements and direct him accordingly. For that 
reason there must not be a rigid observance of set rules — but 
a few general principles are worth mentioning. 

Careful scholarship and ability to make intelligent use of one's 
learning are the essentials. Bayle writes his brother to devote 
himself to Latin, Greek and History, and emphasizes the need 
of exactness in this work. In the study of languages the brother 
shall busy himself with the technicalities of grammar until he 
has thoroughly mastered the details, and he shall pay careful 
attention to literary expression, to allusions, to the exact mean- 
ing of each sentence. In this way he will attain two objects 
at once : he will learn the language, and he will come to appre- 
ciate and understand the thoughts of the author. He shall be 
as rigidly exact in getting the full significance of what he reads 
in these languages as though he had to come before examiners 
who would compel him to explain the slightest details of thought 
and expression. The habit of thinking about what is read, and 
answering such imaginary questions, accustoms the mind to 

'D. VII. 482, Hall, B. As for the rest, Bayle adds, who are not 
blessed with such robust constitutions, they do well to take care of 
themselves; they will accomplish more in the long run and be more 
useful to the Republic of Letters by producing a little each day and 
keeping well. If they devote themselves with too much zeal to their 
labors they break down, and lose time in the end. 

' D. XVI. 8, Preface de la le Ed., II. Cf. D. XV. 224, Dissert, cont. 
le Pro jet. 

•O. D. I. L. 32-5- 

" O. D. I. L. 26, X. Cf . O. D. IV. 583, xl. 

Bayle regrets that he did not have more guidance in his own educa- 
tion. O. D. I. L. 37. 



Scholarship 67 

form clear conceptions, to make use of its knowledge. This 

is vital, 

car ce n'est pas etre savant que de ne se savoir pas servir de sa science, 
tout de meme qu'un soldat qui est si embarasse de ses armes qu'il ne 
peut se remuer, n'est pas un veritable soldat." 

History is to be studied with the same care for details and 
with the same attention to intelligent thinking. Maps and 
chronological tables are important in helping to establish events 
in their relationships one to another. The exact understanding 
of the facts of history is essential, but this is not all. Events 
must be considered carefully as to causes, as to the fundamental 
reason for this or that particular development; historical per- 
sonages must be studied as to the important traits of their char- 
acters, as to what motives prompted their actions, why they 
failed in some enterprises and succeeded in others. Get the 
facts and then think about them. Do not try to run through 
many books ; read less and retain more.^^ 

While the young scholar is learning how to read and how 
to turn his reading to account there is another consideration for 
him to bear in mind constantly. He must avoid pedantry,^^ 

"O. D. I. L. 32. 

Bayle does not believe in methods which purport to teach four or 
five languages at the same time. These methods are either worked out 
by charlatans who seek advertisement, or by savants who are particu- 
larly keen in perceiving the fundamental relations of things. The 
quacks are ridiculous, the scholars are too erudite for youthful minds. 
O. D. I. L. 37- 

^^O. D. I. L. 33. Cf. supra, pp. 39, 40. 

On the matter of getting the right habits as a reader, cf. O. D. I. 
678, i: " C'est deja beaucoup que d'avoir une bonne Bibliotheque, mais 
le principal est de s'en bien servir, soit par I'assiduite au travail, soit 
par les talens que Ton a regus de la Nature." O. D. I. L. 47, xxviii : 
"J'appelle voyages d'esprit une lecture vaste et illimitee de toutes sortes 
de Livres. Si on les entreprend ces voyages-la avant que les forces soient 
venues, c'est-a-dire, avant que d'avoir pose un bon fondement pour 
les materiaux que Ton va chercher de tous cotes, on risque de voir 
bien-tot son batiment renverse." O. D. IV. 863 : " Ceux qui ont lu 
d'une fagon vague toutes sortes de Livres, savent un peu de tout, et 
ne possedent rien a fond," etc. 

^^O. D. I. L. 34. 

Bayle indicates a number of times his objection to pedantry: D. II. 
181, Apollinaris, D; D. IV. 481, Cateromachus, B; O. D. I. 144, v; 
O. D. IV. 729, clxxxv. 



68 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

he must not publish the fact that he is a student or try to air 
his learning. When he is out among his fellows he must adapt 
himself to their conversation and refrain from obtruding his 
own remarks on things learned. It is a good thing for him not 
to stick too closely to his books, for him to take an interest in 
social activities;^* in that way he will come to know the world. 

Such are Bayle's counsels to his brother. The theme dwelt 
on with the most insistence here, the need of absolute accuracy, 
is one that is repeated again and again throughout his writings. 
There are many general comments on the subject and various 
remarks on the demand for accuracy in particular kinds of 
scholarly work. 

A savant must have complete and exact control of the facts 
of the case with which he is dealing. Apropos of this Bayle 
says: 

Le maxime de Descartes est la plus raisonnable du monde, que pour 
eviter de se tromper il n'est rien tel que de suspendre son jugement 
jusqu'a ce qu'on ait examine les choses avec la derniere exactitude, et 
qu'il n'y a point de source d'erreurs plus feconde que la precipitation 
de juger . . ."" 

He refers many times to the necessity of consulting sources in 
order to get these facts.^^ And when a scholar has control of 
the facts he must use them absolutely as he finds them, and 
not remodel them to suit his own requirements.^^ Exactness is 



"Cf. D. IX. 302, Loyer. Bayle states that it is possible and desirable 
to be both learned and polished: O. D. I. L. 75; cf. O. D. I. L. 38, 
67. Cf. O. D. I. L. 175: Bayle advocates science du monde for stu- 
dents; D. V. 321, Cremonin, A: Bayle approves of a professor whose 
conversation outside of the class-room was more polished and pleasant 
than learned ; O. D. III. 505, 6 : " Une erudition mediocre accom- 
pagnee de politesse, fait souvent beaucoup plus d'honneur qu'une erudi- 
tion profonde sans politesse. Ce goiit-la regne assez en France presente- 
ment, et Ton s'appergoit que les gens de Lettres s'y conforment." 

''O. D. I. L. 99, Ixvi. Cf. O. D. I. 300: "rien ne fait plus de tort 
aux Critiques, aussi bien qu'aux Philosophes que de se hater a prendre 
leurs conclusions." 

" D. I. 404, Alcman, A ; D. II. 49, Anaxagoras, K ; D. II. 443, Arsenius 
(3), A; D. VI. 171, Epicure, C; D. XVI. 8, Pref. de la K Ed. Ill; O. D. 
III. 729, 30. 

"D. I. 3, Aaron, C; D. I. 200, Adam, D; D. III. 237, Beaumont, I; 
D. XII. 7, Phasis, A. 



Scholarship 69 

demanded in the finest points. The minutest details concerning 
manuscripts/® different editions/^ the spelling of proper names/^ 
dates/^ the titles of books referred to/^ typographical errors^^ — 
all these have their importance and must be given attention. 

The remarks made by Bayle in the Preface which he writes 
for Furetiere's Dictionary show the important place he gives to 
exactness in the case of lexicography.^* In commending Fure- 
tiere's work he mentions especially its completeness, the variety 
of subjects treated, the excellence of the examples given, the 
remarks on the different arts and sciences. ^^ These details, he 
adds, make the book interesting as well as complete and exact. 
One very praiseworthy feature is the accuracy of the definitions. 
These careful definitions are not only good as such but they give 
valuable training to the reader by getting him into the habit of 
thinking clearly and justly. ^^ It is to be expected that many 
corrections will have to be made in Furetiere's work, for a dic- 
tionary is always open to improvement ; it could hardly be other- 
wise in the case of a book where there is such a demand for 



''D. II. 476, Artemise (2), C. 

'"D. I. 432, Alegambe, B; D. IX. 577, Luther, GG. 

'"D. I. 214, Adam (3), H; D. III. 385, Berulle, note 12; D. VI. 163, 
Ephore, B; O. D. I. 375. 

'' D. I. 99, Abulf eda, B ; D. X. 338, Marsus, C. 

^'D. II. 119, Annat, C. 

^'D. III. 88, Barbarus (2), A. 

Apropos of accuracy in regard to various points cf. D. XV. 236, 
Dissert. Cont. le Projet; D. XV. 380, Preface sur Diet, de Moreri; D. 
XV. 384, Preface sur Diet, de Moreri; D. IV. 425, Cappadoce, K; O. D. 
I. 102, Avertissement ; O. D. III. 523-4, xv; cf. also D. II. 103, Androni- 
cus, B: Bayle grants that great exactness is frequently tiresome for 
the reader; cf. also D. III. 159, Basnage, C: "Les fautes sont comme 
les etincelles: ce qui n'est d'abord que le changement d'une lettre, devient 
quelquefois une complication ou un amas de faussetes monstrueuses." 

'*0. D. IV. 188-93. 

^"O. D. IV. 189. 

^® O. D. IV. 190. " C'est un mal peu reel pour la Societe civile, que 
d'ignorer la propriete de plusieurs termes ; mais il n'est point de pro- 
fession, od la justesse d'esprit ne soit d'un usage merveilleux; et c'est 
une grande preparation pour I'acquerir, que de s'accoutumer de bonne 
heure a parler des choses de son ressort selon les notions qu'un bon 
Dictionnaire en fournit." 



yo The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

precision and fullness.^^ Bayle recommends attention, in writing 
a dictionary, to archaic words and their meanings as estabhshed 
by passages from the old writers, to dialects, and to etymology.^® 
He also speaks, in this same Preface, of the usefulness of dic- 
tionaries and the favor with which they are received in his 
own day, and he claims that the French have done particularly 
good work in dictionary-making, although their temperament 
would seem to fit them for work that required more esprit and 
less patience.^^ 

In critical editions and in the commentaries of savants on the 
writings of the ancients Bayle insists again on exactness and 
attention to details. He approves highly of the effort to have 
a text that is reliable and correct. The numberless commen- 
taries on text variants, which resulted from the revival of 
knowledge in Western Europe and the consequent attention to 
Latin and Greek, are for the most part unsatisfactory. It re- 
quires much discrimination to be a good commentator. An editor 



" O. D. IV. 192 : " Un Dictionnaire est un de ces livres qui peuvent 
etre ameliorez a Tinfini . . . ;" cf. D. IV. 367, Camden, D; O. D. 
I. 60, iii, O. D. IV, 688. 

=«0. D. IV. 192, 3. 

^' O. D. IV. 188, 9. Bayle cites Robert and Henri Estienne and Du 
Cange as excellent lexicographers. 

For another reference to Furetiere's Dictionary cf. O. D. IV. 801. Cf. 
the remark : " II seroit done necessaire, qu'il y eut des explications de 
toutes sortes de mots dans cette espece d'Ouvrages ; f aute de-quoi, il 
faut passer, en lisant, sur des mots, sans les entendre." 

The Dictionary of Furetiere is quite different from that of the Acad- 
emy. The object of the latter, as well as of the Academy itself, is 
to polish the French language so as to make it a ready instrument 
for literary expression. Furetiere on the other hand pays much more 
attention to general information concerning the terms used in the various 
arts and sciences and professions; the question whether a term is poll 
or not does not especially concern him. Bayle expresses the hope that 
the Academy will cease to be antagonistic to Furetiere's Dictionary, 
though he grants that Furetiere indulged in severe satire against its 
members. O. D. IV. 191, 2. The above characterization of Furetiere's 
Dictionary applies only to the first edition, as the editor of Bayle's 
(Euvres Diverses explains in a note (p. 191). Bayle speaks of the slow- 
ness with which the Academy produced its Dictionary, in one case, 
O. D. IV. 191, to excuse this, in another, O. D. II. 169, to blame it. 
Cf. O. D. IV. 756, ReUex. sur un Imprime, etc; Bayle says of the 
Academy Dictionary: " il vogue a pleines voiles vers I'immortalite." 



Scholarship 7 1 

must be familiar with the original manuscripts, must give a full 
account of all previous textual criticism, and must add, finally, 
the results of his own study.^^ The notes of an editor may be 
most helpful in explaining the meaning of a text. In the case 
of an edition of Cicero's orations Bayle praises the plan of 
placing at the head of each an account of the circumstances 
under which the oration was delivered, the time, the place, the 
cause, the judgment given, and an outline of the oration, with 
the reasoning, the proofs, and the various figures of speech, 
pointed out.^^ Details of this kind about the circumstances 
under which a text was written,^^ explanations of the meaning 
of the text,^^ citations from other authors whose remarks have 
some relation to the text — this kind of information is worth 
having.^* The dedications and prefaces which accompany vari- 
ous editions should be given.^^ 

But Bayle objects to the useless digressions which sometimes 
overwhelm editor and reader alike.^® Whatever is his zeal and 
enthusiasm for fine details, he does not forget to be practical, 
and he insists that a text must be prepared with a view to 
the public for whom it is destined. Extreme niceties of erudi- 
tion have their place, but not in a commentary prepared for the 
general reader or for tlie education of youth. To the average 
reader a multitude of minutiae concerning text variants have 
little value; he skips them.^*^ Historical and geographical notes 
and grammatical comments which bring out the force of the 
author's expressions are more useful to the general public. ^^ 
In the case of editions which are being prepared for young 
people care should be taken to make clear the constructions used 
in the text, to explain the points which are simple to the savant 
but which puzzle the novice. Bayle advocates paraphrasing a 



'' O. D. I. 54, vii. 

"" O. D. I. 169, vii. 

'"- Cf . O. D. I. 155, xiv. 

^ Cf . O. D. I. 634. 

"Cf. O. D. I. 17s, X, 481, xi; D. IV. 369. Camden, E. 

^D. I. 444, Alexander ab Alexandre, F; cf. D. II. 72, Ancillon, D. 

^ O. D. I. 169, vii. 

^'O. D. I. 241, iii; cf. O. D. I. 67, iv. 

^O. D. I. 241, iv; O. D. I. 67, iv. 



7 2 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

Latin text so that the constructions and word order may not 
overwhelm a young student.^* 

Translation calls for the same attention to accuracy. A trans- 
lator must try to be absolutely correct, and must produce a 
faithful and clear reproduction of the original text.*^ He 
should himself add nothing. Any personal comments must be 
placed elsewhere.*^ Our author has no sympathy for a trans- 
lator whose religious zeal moves him to change the text where 
it reflects discredit on his particular faith.*^ He approves highly 
of a translator of poetry who is able to be scrupulously accurate 
and yet produce a work pleasing and free from the dryness that 
usually characterizes a literal version.*^ Here, and in various 
cases, Bayle is impressed with the difficulties involved.** 



"O. D. I. 142. iv. 

It is quite possible to have too much cleverness and too much learning 
to be a good commentator. Scaliger is an example of this : " a force 
d'avoir de I'esprit, il trouvoit dans les Auteurs qu'il commentoit, plus 
de finesse et plus de genie qu'ils n'en avoient effectivement ; et sa pro- 
fonde litterature etoit cause qu'il voyoit mille rapports entre les pensees 
d'un Auteur, et quelque point rare d'antiquite ... les Commentaires 
qui viennent de lui, sont pleins de conjectures hardies, ingenieuses et fort 
sgavantes ; mais il n'est gueres apparent que les Auteurs ayent songe a 
tout ce qu'il leur fait dire." O. D. I. 67, iv; cf. O. D. II. 527; D. II. 
64, Anchise, E : *' Si les anciens ecrivains revenaient au monde, ils seraient 
bien etonnes de voir dans leurs livres tant de choses auxquelles ils ne 
songerent jamais;" cf. O. D. I. 143, v: On the other hand the com- 
mentator does not always give his author the credit that is due for the 
excellence of some thought. 

**'D. II. 31, Anaxagoras, C; D. II. 445, Arsinoe (2), C; D. IX. 154, 
Leon X. K; O. D. III. 517- Cf. D. XII. 332, Priole, G; O. D. IV. 177: 
Bayle criticises particular translations for inaccuracy. 

*^ D. III. 451, Bion, H. 

*^D. IX. 574, Luther, BB. Bayle criticises a Protestant. 

*'0. D. I. 170, viii. Cf. O. D. I. 633; cf. O. D. I. 375: Approval of 
a translation of works of Demosthenes, Plato and Cicero where dryness 
is avoided. 

^ Cf . O. D. I. 141, ii ; Especially : " II ne suffit pas de sgavoir les 
Langues pour bien traduire, il f aut aussi sgavoir les choses : " cf . 
D. XIV. 269, Tullie, L: "il est extremement difficile de bien traduire; 
car quoiqu'on prenne les expressions de I'original dans le sens le plus 
vraisemblable, on ne laisse pas quelquefois de s'egarer : la connaissance 
de cent faits particuliers est necessaire pour choisir le sens veritable." 
Cf. D. XII. 528, 9, Ryer (2), A. B. 



Scholarship 73 

Indeed, exact scholarship in any of these fields is as difficult 
as it is desirable; the most learned writers like Scaliger, Vossius 
and Saumaise, make slips.*^ Often the mistakes of clever men 
are enough to discourage a scholar.*^ 

Bayle makes several remarks as to the reasons which make 
research work so complicated and uncertain. Many mistakes 
come from studying the past without sufficient documentary 
evidence. A modern instance brings out strikingly the compli- 
cations liable to arise in parallel cases. In speaking of a book 
which claimed to give the true story of the loves of Gregory 
VII, Richelieu and others, Bayle suggests what might happen 
if between the eighteenth and twenty-eighth centuries a recur- 
rence of the Dark Ages should be followed by another Renais- 
sance of letters.*^ Perhaps this book, which is full of lies, would 
be preserved, while a thousand useful ones disappeared. It 
would be discovered and made to pass for reliable evidence of 
the amours of these gentlemen. 

On a ete le dupe d'une f ois de pareils ouvrages : on le sera apparem- 
ment dans les siecles a venir. Patience."*^ 

In another case Bayle suggests what might occur if French 

*°D. II. 33, Anaxagoras, D; D. 11. 264, Archelaus (3), F; cf. D. II. 
95, Andrinople, B ; D. II. 132, Antoine, B ; D. V. 453, Demetrius Magnes, 
A; D. XV. 226. Dissert, cont. le Pro jet. 

The mistakes of great scholars offer some consolation to lesser lights. 
D. XV. 227, Dissert, cont.. le Projet, II. Indeed, great scholars are espe- 
cially liable to error. D. XV. 227, Dissert, cont. le Projet, II; D. III. 
212, Bautru, B. Among other reasons for this Bayle suggests that the 
very bigness of these superior geniuses makes them ignore details. He 
cites Longinus and others on the subject: O. D. II. 170, i. 

**D. IX. 541, Lupercales, C. 

On the mistakes of savants cf. D. XV. 131, Dissert, sur le Litre de 
J. B. VII. " Les savans sont d'etranges gens ; ils courent apres les choses 
eloignees et qui les fuient, et laissent ce qu'ils ont comme sous la main." 
Cf . D. III. 399, Beze, E : Bayle says, of the complaints of those who 
object to the corrections made in successive editions of the New Testa- 
ment of Beze : " se facher de cela, c'est se facher contre la nature, qui a 
voulu que nos lumieres fussent tres-bornees, et qu'elles s'augmentassent 
peu a peu." 

" D. VII. 254, Gregoire VII. T. Cf. D. II. 497, Athenee (2) : " C'est 
ainsi qu'il y a tel compilateur, dont notre siecle ne fait nul cas, qui serait 
admire d'ici a mille ans, s'il arrivait dans la republique des lettres les 
memes revolutions qui ont fait perir la plupart des livres des anciens 
auteurs grecs et romains;" i.e. supposing this compiler's work were pre- 



7 4 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

should meet the fate of Latin, and if French Hterature should 
go through a period of obscurity as the Latin did in the Dark 
Ages.*^ Suppose that among the works preserved should be 
the writings of Boileau and the expression in the Lutrin,^^ le 
moelleux Ahelly, where the epithet refers to a book, Medulla 
Theologica, written by Abelly. Suppose this latter book were 
destroyed and its existence forgotten. What chimerical, ex- 
travagant comments the critics would hazard as to the meaning 
of the adjective in this application! Doubtless some one w^ould 
see in moelleux Ahelly an allusion to the fact that Abel offered 
up to the Lord the fat of the firstlings of his flock.^'' Evidently 
the lack of documents is liable to be the source of innumerable 
errors in scholarly work. Another cause of mistakes is poor 
memory. Memory is most important in the Republic of Let- 
ters,^^ but it behooves savants to be careful how they rely on it.°^ 
The difficulties of scholarship are particularly evident in the 
contentions which come up among savants. None are harder 
to settle.^^ Not only the first arguments of each side must be 
studied, but the successive answers which accumulate as one 
man replies to the other. In the rebuttals it is likely enough 
that a disputant will condemn what is good and fail to censure 
what is bad, so that new errors are added to those already 
existing. Sometimes it is possible for a critic to discover, at 
the very beginning, the essential errors in such a dispute, some- 
times the truth escapes him altogether. The matter may be 
compared to hunting: 

a la verite ceux qui cherchent les fautes des auteurs trouvent bien 



served from the general destruction of books. Therefore, do not despise 
compilers, says Bayle. 

*® D. I. 69, Abelly, A. Cf . D. V. 521, Dinant, A : on a third case where 
such mistakes might arise. 

"'Lutrin, Chant IV. 

"» Cf . Genesis, IV, 4- 

•*' D. VII. 210, Gratarolus, B. The most agreeable feature of erudition, 
says Bayle, in one place, O. D. I. 300, is to be able to remember things. 
But the pleasure is fleeting; a man's memory weakens as he grows older. 
On the tremendous memory of Montmaur and the advantage it gave 
him in conversation, cf. D. X. 506, Montmaur, G. 

^' D. XIV. 485, Urgulanilla, A ; cf . D. I. 444, Alexander ab Alexandre, 
E. 

"'D. XV. 228, Dissert, cont. le Pro jet, III; cf. O. D. I. no, v. 



Scholarship 7 5 

quelquefois la bete toute tuee ou aux abois, mais . . ^ ils la trouvent 
aussi quelquefois qui donne le change, ou qui esquive le coup, ou meme 
qui se defend encore vigoureusement quoique percee de cent traits. Les 
chicanes que la vanite et la mauvaise honte inspirent aux ecrivains 
critiques, ne rendent que trop juste I'application de la metaphore. 
Cependant cela nous montre qu'il ne suffit pas de savoir copier, pour aller 
heureusement a cette chasse, et que I'abondance des materiaux n'empeche 
pas que la construction de I'edifice ne coute beaucoup.^* 

Although such stress is laid on the need of exactness and 
completeness in all scholarly efforts and although Bayle urges 
so vigorously that the difficulties in the way be overcome, it 
must be added that he does not think this kind of accuracy, 
by itself, enough to constitute an eminent scholar. He recog- 
nizes two kinds of savants. There are some fitted by their 
memory, their patience and their industry, to accumulate vast 
compilations of fact.^^ This type of eruditus, whose work is 
distinguished more than anything else by its accuracy, has indeed 
a place. But there is a higher order of scholarship represented 
by men of superior critical faculties who can grasp the funda- 
mental principles of things and who are capable of exploring 
new fields. ^^ Bayle refers to the ancient scholiasts as being 
commendable only for the material found in their commen- 
taries.^'^ The German men of science are praiseworthy both 
for their industry and their genius.^® 

Aside from this varied treatment of the question of accuracy 
and completeness, there is one other feature of scholarship on 
which Bayle dwells especially. This is the matter of the rela- 
tions of savants among themselves. How shall they treat each 



" D. XV. 229, Dissert, cont. le Pro jet, III. Bayle goes on, in the fol- 
lowing section, 229-30, IV, to explain the great usefulness of a work 
like his Dictionary, where these disputes are carefully studied and a 
judgment rendered for the benefit of the reader. 

"Cf. D. XV. 223, Dissert, cont. le Pro jet; D. XV. 375, Pref. de M. 
Bayle. 

''D. I. 453, Allatius; D. X. 215, Marca, N; D. XII. 495, Reinesius. 
Cf . O. D. IV. 131 ; cf . O. D. I. 189, ix : Bayle commends a chemist who 
seeks the principles of chemical phenomena rather than devoting himself 
to long series of experiments without reference to causes. 

■^^O. D. I. 505. 

''O. D. I. 389, iv; cf. D. II. 414, Arnauld (4), O: Bayle speaks of 
the activity of the savants of Leipsic, and says the city may be named 
the Athens of Germany. 



76 TJie Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

other in the disputes which are bound to arise concerning various 
points of erudition? In point of fact, they treat each other 
rather shamefully. Wrangling is very common among men of 
learning. Their lives and their writings give evidence of in- 
numerable quarrels, characterized by spite, jealousy, calumny 
and other evil passions. ^^ It is rare for them to engage in a 
dispute without maltreating each other. They may be gentle- 
manly at the start, but, in any case, they soon change, they 
let loose their malice, and attack each other with more and more 
bitterness as the dispute proceeds. ^^ There may be various rea- 
sons for this violence which is so characteristic. 

N'est-ce pas que le temperament qui fait les grands hommes est semblable 
a ces terres fortes, qui produisent de bonnes et de mechantes herbes 
abondamment? Ou bien n'est ce pas que la bile la plus seche forme 
la vivacite de I'esprit, et que les veilles et les meditations, par lesquelles 
on devient grand homme, echauffent extremement les humeurs? Ou 
enfin n'est-ce pas que les grands hommes connoissent parfaitement ce 
qu'ils valent, s'imaginent que les moindres injures qu'on leur fait sont 
des crimes qu'il faut chatier exemplairement, afin d'aprendre au Public 
a honorer le veritable merite?®^ 

Besides these possible reasons it is certainly true, Bayle adds, 
that those who lavish praise on savants increase their self 
admiration and incline them to resent contradiction all the more 
vigorously.^^ 

It is a pity that men of letters cannot rid themselves of this 
vice.^^ The results are deplorable. The world becomes dis- 
gusted with learning. It is reasonable to expect that much read- 
ing and erudition will give a man balance, will tend to free 
him from the faults and prejudices which induce a quarrelsome 
spirit. But experience shows that no such desirable effect is 
obtained.^^ Moreover the anxiety to find mistakes in the work 



^ D. XII. 497, Reinesius ; cf : " II semble que les gens de lettres sont 
ceux qui conspirent davantage contre leur propre repos et contre celui 
de leur prochain;" cf. D. III. 481, Blondel (2), D: on quarrelsome pro- 
fessors; cf. D. XV. 226, Dissert, cont. le Pro jet; O. D. II. 320, xx. 

«'0. D. I. 266-7. 

**0. D. II. 187-8. On the vanity of men of learning, which Bayle 
deplores, cf. D. V. 196, Cimon, D; O. D. I. 304, ii. 327; O. D. III. 651-2. 

«'D. VII. 79, Gifanius, E; D. III. 157, Basine, F. 

"'D. XII. 497-8, Reinesius, B. Bayle adds that there is nothing more 
difficult to obtain than a well-balanced mind. 



Scholarship 7 7 

of an adversary is a dangerous guide; it engenders other mis- 
takes. ^^ And the disputes of savants make the general pubHc 
doubt whether accurate knowledge is to be obtained.^^ 

Yet these disputes have a very definite advantage, provided 
they are not carried on in a spiteful fashion. Bayle believes, 
for his part, that the discussions and differences of learned 
men do add to the general sum of knowledge.*^^ A careful 
examination of facts as they are brought out in a dispute, leads 
to the discovery of mistakes, and that is worth while.^^ But of 
course it is essential that these disputes be conducted in a gen- 
tlemanly spirit. Bayle has words of praise for savants when 
they enter into their discussions without malice.^^ 

To be a scholar and a gentleman is, then, in Bayle's opinion, 
a noble ambition. Scholarship does not bring very practical 
results, but it is inspiring to be a seeker of Truth for Truth's 
sake, and man's inclinations in that direction are to be encour- 
aged. The individual who sets out on such a career, who seeks 
to make himself a savant, has no easy task. But if he is suc- 
cessful he will find himself a member of a dignified and valu- 
able profession. 

^*D. I. 536, Amphiaraus, B. 

'"'O. D. I. 223. 

^° Cf . O. D. I. L. 38, xxi : Bayle refers to the benefit of intercourse 
among men of letters; O. D. I. L. 37; O. D. I. L. 74: A spirit of con- 
tradiction is to be recommended in schools and helps train thinkers, but 
in other places it is not good taste; D. II. 577, Aureolus, B; Gigas, 9. 

®^ O. D. I. 190, X. Apropos of a botanical discussion. Cf . O. D. I. 299. 

"^O. D. I. 19, 71, vi. 302, 507, ii; cf. D. II. 264-5, Archelaus (3), F; 
D. III. 157, Basine, F; D. XI. 553, Pereira, D; D. XIII. 548, Suetone 
(2), A; O. D. I. 185, iv; O. D. I. 438, 9; D. XV. 233-5, Dissert, cont. 
le Projet, VI. Bayle explains the moderation which shall characterize 
his criticisms in the Dictionary; D. XV. 243-4, Dissert, cont. le Projet, 
IX : Bayle states that he will criticise all authors with equal freedom 
and moderation, regardless of their nationality or religion ; Gigas 88-9. 

Bayle states that the violence of authors is more excusable when they 
write in Latin than when they write in French. He suggests several 
reasons for the fact. Those who write in Latin are as a rule men shut 
up in their studies and not polished by contact with the world nor by 
reading the modern languages. They catch the spirit of Latin litera- 
ture, which is so abundant in invectives. Furthermore an opprobrious 
epithet in Latin does not bring up the same vivid associations that the 
equivalent in the living language would arouse. O. D. II. 201-2, xii, 



VIII 

STYLE 

Style does not impress the editor of the Noiivelles as a matter 
deserving special stress. He has a few precepts to advocate, 
and insists with some energ}^ on the need of attention to clear- 
ness and to correctness. Style for style's sake, however, means 
nothing to him. Apropos of his own writings he testifies to 
the efforts he makes to avoid negligence in certain details of 
composition,^ but he owns that he is inclined to pay more atten- 
tion to the reasoning than to the expression: 

j'avoue ingenuement que j'ai toujours eu plus de soin de devenir capable 
de bien raisonner, que d'apprendre a bien parler . . .^ 

He suggests several times that there are cases where the excel- 
lence of the material found in a book may excuse the poor 
form in which it is presented.^ 

Since he has such a point of view it is not to be expected 
that Bayle will sympathize with those who go to extremes in 
polishing and correcting their compositions. A reasonable 
amount of care may be praiseworthy, he says, but there is a 
limit to the efforts a writer should make; he must not be too 



^ D. XVI. 6, Pref. de la le Ed. 

* O. D. II. 5. Cf. Gigas, 78: '' je connois que mon stile, et ma com- 
position sont tout a fait irregulieres." Cf. supra, p. 28, n. 4, ref. to 
the letter published by Gigas, pp. 74-85. 

^O. D. I. 91; O. D. I. 361, xi; cf. D. VII. 91-2, Glaphyra (2), C. 

It might be supposed from certain remarks of Bayle that he would not 
think it worth while to strive for a style that is individual and dis- 
tinctive, for he speaks several times as if he were not inclined to admit 
the existence of such a thing. One cannot deduce from characteristics 
of style the identity of an author, for different writers compose in the 
same way, and the same writer often changes his style. Cf. D. IX. 
142, Leon ler, F; O. D. II. 643-4; O. D. II. 688-9. Moreover, a young 
writer is apt to mold his style according to the books he reads. O. D. 
IV. 758. But these remarks are made in connection with arguments 
de circonstance and have slight value. 



Style 79 

particular and strive and strain for a long time over the writing 
of a few pages. 

Les exces qui se commettent en cela sont tres-blamables, et un joug 
qui reduit quelquefois la plume a une espece de sterilite.* 

If authors of little or no ability should observe the maxim 
that a writing is to be kept in one's cabinet for nine years, they 
would do well, but such a precept in the case of a clever man 
is undesirable. The public is liable to be deprived of books 
which, if written more easily and with less perfection, would 
still be excellent, when penned by the hand of a great author. 
And the author harms himself. He may polish and repolish 
and labor to attain a form that is impeccable until he becomes 
tired and disgusted. Then he throws aside the work, and robs 
himself of the glory he might have had in publishing a book, 
not perhaps above reproach, but certainly of value. Moreover, 
it is possible to reach a point where further efforts, instead of 
tending towards perfection, take from the vigor and richness 
of style.^ It is also true that an author's style may bear too 
clear evidence of the fact that writing is hard work for him.^ 
Clearness is the stylistic feature dwelt upon with the most 
insistence. A writer must be careful about the general plan of 



*D. X. 178, Malherbe, G. 

Cf . D. I. 394, Alciat, A : " qu'il y a des gens qui, a force de travailler 
a etre de bons auteurs, demeurent toujours prives de la qualite d'auteur," 
The emphasis is not on style in this case; the remark is made apropos 
of a controversial writing. 

'D. IX. 251-4, Linacer, F. 

Bayle quotes Pliny the Younger, Quintilian and others in this connec- 
tion. He states that there are many cases where writers experience more 
difficulties with their style, make more changes and erasures, at the 
beginning of the composition than anywhere else. An author is apt 
to take particular pains to correct a new edition of his work, but that 
is often peine perdue, for few people compare editions or recognize the 
importance of such corrections. 

Cf. D. VII. 307-11, Guarini (2), G: Remarks on the practice of spend- 
ing too much time on a composition. In this note Bayle speaks of the 
fact that certain authors who seem to write with extreme facility have 
only secured that effect by painstaking effort, and he also mentions 
those writers who are pleased that their style should be complex and 
bear evidence of hard work. Cf . D. XIII. 278, Silanion, A : on spend- 
ing too much time on a composition. 

•'Cf. D. III. 67, Balzac (2); D. VII. 308, Guarini (2), G. 



8o The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

his composition; the various parts must be carefully dis- 
tinguished, and yet must follow each other smoothly, in a 
natural and logical sequence." To secure this unity of effect 
and to avoid confusion is particularly difficult in the case of 
an abridgment.^ No work perhaps calls for more good taste 
and discernment than the presenting, in small compass, of the 
essential details of a large book. It is also hard to make addi- 
tions to a composition and to be sure that no statements in the 
main part of the work fail to harmonize with what follows.^ 
Yet such difficulties must be overcome. 

When the general plan has been determined, the details of 
phraseology demand attention. Extreme care is to be exercised 
in the arrangement of relatives and their antecedents, in placing 
possessive pronouns and the like so as to avoid all confusion 
in meaning.^^ Bayle indicates his approval when a writer pro- 
duces a composition that is clean-cut and free from obscurity; 
he is irritated when a piece is marked by confusion and indis- 
tinctness.^^ He frequently censures turns of expression which 
cause ambiguity,^^ though admitting the extreme difficulty of 
writing in such a way as to make the meaning absolutely definite. 
It is almost impossible for an author to express himself so 
clearly that future generations will never interpret his words 
in different senses. 



'Cf. D. XII. 27, Philistus, D; O. D. I. L. 136: of narration. 

^D. I. Achille, 147, C; D. II. 463, Artaxata, A; D. II. 470, Artemidore, 
H; D. V. 288, Conon (2), I; D. VI. 45, Drusus (2), F; D. VII. 316, 
Guebriant, F; O. D. IV. 195. Cf. D. II. 446, Arsinoe (2), C: " Quoi 
qu'il en soit, ni Justin, ni plusieurs autres abreviateurs, ne savent pas 
qu'un abrege doit ressembler aux pygmees qui ont toutes les parties du 
corps humain, mais chacune a proportion plus petite que celles d'un 
homme de belle taille." 

'D. X. 165, Maldonat, I; D. XVI. 20, Avert, sur la 2^ Ed. (of addi- 
tions to a dictionary) ; O. D. III. 7-8 : Bayle confesses that to incorporate 
additions into the text of a work instead of at the end, and leave the 
harmony of the whole composition undisturbed, is too difficult for him. 

"O. D. IV. 7^Z- 

'^D. I. 429, Aleandre (2), B; D. III. 307, Beme, B; D. IV. 216, 
Buchanan, A. (Cf. sub-note 2); O. D. I. 273, iii; O. D. I. 284, iii; 
O. D. I. 308, v; O. D. I. 429, ii; O. D. III. 615, Ixiii. 

"D. VI. 52, Drusus (3), F; D. VI. 171, Epicure, C; D. VI. 388, Fan- 
nius, A; D. VII. 130, Gontaut (2), A; D. X. 398, Memnon, E; D. XI. 
20, Naples (2), B; O. D. III. 549, note f. 



Style 8 1 

Si Ton prevoyait les controverses qui s'eleveront dans trois ou quatre 
cents ans, on s'exprimerait d'une maniere plus precise; mais je ne sais 
si les langues fourniraient autant de termes qu'il en faudrait pour oter 
les equivoques, et pour obvier aux chicanes/^ 

There is no language affording more opportunity than French 
for clean-cut, accurate expression. The clearness of French is 
characteristic. In a letter to M. Rou, our author writes : 

Vous savez mieux que moi, que le caractere de notre Langue, et ce 
qui la distingue de toutes les autres, est une maniere nette, coulante, 
debarrassee, de ranger les mots, qui fait qu'un Lecteur ne balance point 
a quoi il doit rapporter les Particules " qui," " le," " son," " que," etc. 
Dans les autres Langues, on se determine par la nature des sujets; 
dans la notre, on epargne au Lecteur cette recherche: la seule situation 
des mots, ou Ton evite deux antecedens susceptibles de la meme rela- 
tion, fait juger de la pensee." 

French is certainly superior to the ancient languages in this 
matter, although here too it is easy to be lax and fall into 
ambiguity.^^ Latin and Greek, particularly the former, abound 
in equivocal expressions,^® and there is a similar lack of clear- 
ness in Itahan.^^ 

Closely allied with the question of clearness is the matter of 



" D. V. 380, Dante, L Apropos of an interpretation of Dante's opinions 
in regard to the papacy. 

Bayle suggests that common sense must often come to the help of 
grammar, in questions of the meaning of an expression. D. XIL 493, 
Reihing, D. 

He also suggests that a writer's style may be improved by a careful 
observance of the principles of logic, by avoiding confusion in the 
reasoning. In other words, think clearly and you may write clearly. 
D. V. SOI, Diagoras (2), H; cf. D. VI. 24, Drusille, A. 

Cf. O. D. I. 177, i: A knowledge of philosophy is valuable to a 
rhetorician, for there is a close relation between language and the 
workings of the mind. 

For an example of Bayle's insistence upon absolute accuracy in ex- 
pression, cf. O. D. IV. 722-3. 

"O. D. IV. 723; cf. D. I. 146, Achille, C; O. D. IV. 190- 1 : on the 
excellence of French and its widespread use in Europe; O. D. I. 174: 
"la langue Frangoise est aujourd'hui dans sa perfection . . ." 

"D. III. 24, Badius, K; D. IV. 131, Breze (2), A; D. V. 443, Dejotarus, 
G; D. V. 452, Dellius, F; D. V. 552, Dolabella, G; D. VI. 273, Esechiel, 
E; D. XIV. 103, Theon, B. 

''D. III. 107, Barclai (2), D; D. VII. 248, Gregoire VII, P; D. X. 
320, Marot, L; O. D. I. 646. 

"D. X\. 76, Zeuxis, L. 



82 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

conciseness. A style that is extremely condensed may result in 
obscurity. Bayle suggests that there is a happy medium.^^ He 
censures the excesses of modern writers 

qui accusent de prolixite tout auteur qui ne donne pas a deviner le 
meilleur de ses pensees." 

It is more difficult to avoid obscurity in long sentences than 
in short ones, but it is a sign of laziness to use always le style 
coupe. Those who write long periods and link the parts together 
properly can really be more concise than those who write a 
series of short sentences. Bayle contrasts the conciseness of 
Cicero with the verbiage of Seneca.^** 

In regard to digressions there is again a golden mean. Un- 
doubtedly a writer should not wander from his subject, yet 
it is quite possible to follow one particular line with so little 
variety that the reader becomes exceedingly bored. An occa- 
sional relaxation from gravity of style, the introduction from 
time to time of some detail which, though* it does not bear 
directly on the question at issue, is interesting, helps to make 
the reader alert, and prevents him from feeling the fatigue 
caused by a book that is always correct, serious and concise; 

un peu de variete est necessaire dans tous les ouvrages d'esprit et Ton 
remarque que les ecrivains les plus reguliers ne sont pas ceux qui se 
font lire le plus agreablement.^ 

The rigid observance of the law against digressions may pro- 
duce a book which is superior as a work of art, but the reading 
public will not like it. Whether artistic ideals or the taste of 
the public should be followed Bayle leaves an open question.^^ 

"D. VIII, 275, Hotman, C: A good writer prides himself on being 
concise, but he may go too far. O. D. I. 629, iii. 

''D. X. 278, Marie, C. Cf. O. D. I. 121, ii. Cf. on the other hand: 
D. I. 313, Ajax, B: " Quintus Calaber particularise les choses avec beau- 
coup plus d'etendue: il est si prolixe, que ce seul endroit lemoigne qu'il- 
n'etait pas un grand maitre." On conciseness in style, as to its difficulty 
as well as desirability, cf. O. D. I. 444, Avertissement. Bayle is speaking 
of his own writing. 

^" O. D. IV. 723. The example is poorly chosen if Bayle wishes to 
bring out the difference between long and short periods, for he says: 
" Ciceron mettroit dans une periode de six lignes, ce que Seneque dit 
dans six periodes qui tiennent chacune huit ou neuf lignes." 

"■ D. XII. 27, Philistus, E. 

^D. XII. 27-8, Philistus, E, apropos of history; cf. D. XIV. 108-10, 



Style 83 

He admits on various occasions that his own writings abound 
in digressions and are long-winded. He apologizes for this, but 
advances the plea mentioned: digressions often add to the in- 
terest of a work and divert the reader.^^ 

Correctness is important. Accuracy in spelling is to be insisted 
upon.2* Provincialisms in writing and in pronunciation must be 
avoided ;^^ it is hard to do this, but on the other hand success 
in the effort may result in a style that is unusually pure. Have 
not Malherbe, Balzac and Vaugelas, who were from the Prov- 
inces, been particularly commendable as to their pure speech, 
for the very reason perhaps that they felt especially the need of 
care?^^ There is such a thing as too rigid adherence to the 
tyrannical precepts of grammar, and indeed if one submitted to 
all the rules it would be impossible to write French. 

Les nouveaux Grammairiens Francois nous donnent des regies qu'il est 
impossible de suivre, et ils meriteroient d'etre regardez comme le fleau 
des Auteurs. lis ont rendu la Langue Frangoise celle de toutes les 
Langues, ou il est le plus mal-aise de bien ecrire.^^ 

Yet it is good to set a high ideal for oneself in this matter.^^ 



Theopompe, E. F; O. D. I. L. 136: on digressions of the nouvellistes; 
O. D. III. 1032, x; against the digressions of a particular history. 

^^ O. D. III. 4, 9, 10, 158-9. For Bayle's comment on the digressions 
and prolixity in his own letters cf. O. D. IV. 543, 545, 587, xliii, 596, 
xliv. 

'' D. IV. 297, Cayet, N ; O. D. I. L. 69, 83, liv. 

Bayle writes to his younger brother, O. D. I. L. 38, xx: " J'ai 
remarque que vous innovez beaucoup dans I'ortographe. Vous ne mettez 
par exemple aucune r aux infinitifs. C'est une singularite qu'on par- 
donne aux femmes, mais les Savans ne s'en servent pas. lis attendent 
que I'usage ait regie peu a peu le retranchement des lettres superflues. 
II est probablement que I'ecriture s'approchera de la prononciation plus 
qu'elle n'a fait jusqu'ici ; mais c'est une imagination mal fondee de croire 
qu'on puisse jamais ecrire comme Ton prononce, et ceux qui en ont 
fait la tentative se sont fait siffler." 

-''O. D. I. 275, viii, 30s; O. D. I. L. 69, 83, liv, 117, 175. 

''O. D. I. 306. 

'"^O. D. II. 6. Cf. O. D. IV. 835- And the best grammarians make 
mistakes, says Bayle, apropos of a point in Latin: O. D. I. 299. 

^'0. D. I. 296, viii. 

Bayle occasionally criticises a particular expression as incorrect. Cf. 
D. V. 145, Chigi (2), note (28) ; O. D. I. 38, xx: " Cet endroit 'Priam 
qui a eu gouverne,' est un barbarisme, on ne parle pas ainsi en bon 



84 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

The ornaments of style are not by any means as important 
as these other details. Bayle advocates simplicity,^^ and objects 
to the brilliancy which often serves to cover up falsehood. ^^ The 
rules of rhetoric permit extravagances and exaggerations which 
are not tolerated elsewhere.^^ On the various rhetorical figures 
there is little comment. Occasionally Bayle refers to the excel- 

f rangois ; " O. D. I. L. 96 : " Vous vous servez du Verbe ' rester ' en 
deux facons vicieuses, en disant je n'ai pas reste de faire ceci ou cela ;" 
etc. 

The question of introducing obscenities in one's writings has some 
relation to the matter of pureness of style, and the defence which Bayle 
publishes (D. XV. 324-71) against the attacks on those in his Dic- 
tionary includes one or two remarks on this theme. He makes two 
general divisions among those writers who deal with obscenities; into 
one group he puts those whose work is historical in character and who 
have to touch upon the indecent from that point of view; and into a 
second group he puts all the others, those who treat such subjects in 
the role of poets, novelists and what not. In the case of the second 
group Bayle deplores the practice, but states that it has so long been 
a habit for various writers to dabble in these things that there is a 
certain precedent for the indulgence. The Dictionary, of course, belongs 
to the first group. In a work of this character it is enough to avoid 
expressions which shock common decency; the daintiness which might 
be expected in a hel esprit is not called for here (D. XV. 333). Bayle 
has no sympathy for the delicacy of the purists who are extreme in 
censuring this or that expression as sale. As a matter of fact they 
are inconsistent. The veiled expressions used by them are often more 
reprehensible than out and out grossierete (cf. D. XV. 345 ; O. D. III. 
1060) . And both kinds appeal to the imagination with equal vividness ; 
there is no real difference (D. XV. 350; cf. D. III. 403, Beze, H; D. 
VIII. 145, Hipparchia, D.). Aside from any question of grammar or 
style it is certainly true that a compiler of facts which are historical 
in character has a right to treat of obscene things when they become 
a part of his subject. A multitude of writers have established the pre- 
cedent for this privilege. (Bayle insists especially on this right. Cf. 
D. I. 204, Adam, G; D. III. 483, Blondel (3), A; D. VIII. 144, Hip- 
parchia, D; D. XII. 385-6, Quellenec, E; D. XIII. 272-4, Sforce (3), 
E; D. IX. 186, Lesbos, C. Bayle adds here: "II faut s'assujettir quel- 
quefois aux scrupules de la mode;" O. D. I. L. 181, cxxxvii; O. D. IV. 
747-8, quoted in D. XII. 385-6, Quellenec, E; O. D. IV. 754, xxxiii). 

^O. D. IV. 659; O. D. IV. 726: on simplicity of style in a history; 
cf. supra, p. 59; cf. D. IV. 195, Brutus (3) : a censure of the practice 
of using pompous titles. 

«° D. IX. 425, Louis XI, V. 

'^D. I. 207, Adam, N; D. II. 211, Apulee, G; D. III. 189, Baudius, P; 
D. IV. 489-90, Cassandre, F. (cf. note 39, p. 490) ; D. V. 211, Cyrille, A. 



Style 85 

lence of a simile or metaphor,^^ but he admits that toute com- 
paraison cloche,^^ and he declares that a long drawn out meta- 
phor is by no means his favorite figure.^* Irony may be used 
to good advantage where it is undesirable to give a dispute the 
dignity of serious discussion. ^° But irony is frequently too bitter 
and malign to be pleasing.^*^ In the matter of euphony, French 
presents a particular problem. To avoid inversions and trans- 
positions, to arrange words in a natural manner as is done in 
French, results sometimes in rhymed prose.^^ But this indeed 
is preferable to the obscurity that the inverted construction 
would cause.^^ 

Concerning diction no rules are laid down. Bayle is impressed 
by the inadequacy of the stock of words from which a man has 
to choose. All languages are inadequate; a writer sometimes 
has to use the same word to express two ideas which are dif- 
ferent and for which there should be separate names. Our 
author cites the case of hon and mauvais; he objects to the 



^- D. II. 177, Apion, C; D. 11. 492, Athenagoras, E; D. V. 61, Chamier, 
G. 

^D. XIV. 171-4, Timee, I: Apropos of a comparison of Tinraeus, cen- 
sured by Longinus, Bayle suggests that it is enough for a comparison 
to be striking; it does not matter if the parallel is, in some particulars, 
inexact. D. III. 477, Blondel, O; D. VI. 510, Fontevraud, H; D. XL 
541, Penelope, H; O. D. I. 657. 

^*0. D. IV. 545- 

^O. D. I. 497-8. 

^O. D. IV. 545- 

«^0. D. II. 6; cf. D. XVI. Pref. de la le Ed. note 19. 

««0. D. I. 122. 

There are a few remarks on elegance in the Latin language in par- 
ticular. It is no easy matter to have a good understanding of what 
is pure Latin; years of study and careful thought are necessary (O. D. 
I. 124; cf. D. XIIL 197, Scioppius, K; O. D. I. 305; O. D. IV. 189). 
Much of the Latin written by modern authors is barbarous, — though there 
are cases where writers have attained some degree of excellence (O. 
D. I. L. 2^, 47-8; O. D. I. 123, iv.). Bayle is inclined to sneer at the 
affectation of a pure Ciceronian style when it involves applying pagan 
names to the details of Christian worship (D. III. 298, Bembus ; D. 
III. 553, Bonfinus, E; D. IV. 529, Castalion, C). He also suggests in 
another case that the delicacy of purists is excessive (O. D. I. 350). 
The Latin of state documents does not have to be written with great 
care and study, but there should be a certain elegance and clearness 
(O. D. IV. 639, xcv.). 



86 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

necessity of using these terms for physical as well as for moral 
qualities. A judge who is a rascal is called a bad judge; an 
artist who is unskillful is called a bad artist. There should be 
a new set of words for the physical qualities, and these adjec- 
tives should be used of moral qualities only. Man's indolence 
and the caprices of usage help explain this poverty of 
vocabulary.^^ 

Since language offers such an unsatisfactory means of ex- 
pression, Bayle would naturally oppose any practice which tends 
even more to narrow the limits. The inclination to shun all 
archaic words comes in for censure on this score. It is a 
mistake for an author to try to eliminate from his vocabulary 
any terms that he may suspect of being antiquated. It is only 
young writers, or those who compose very slowly, or the people 
at large who know nothing about the difficulties of style, who 
advocate such a practice ; men who are obliged to write a book 
of any length, or are under the necessity of writing rapidly, 
understand the need of having a language as rich as possible 
in the variety of its expressions. A plentiful supply of words 
helps to avoid repetitions, to secure clearness. Even the great 
authors, like La Bruyere, those who have the best command of 
their pens, protest against such a weakness of the language.*^ 



^D. XII. 460, Rangouze, A. Apropos of diction, cf. D. II. 560, Augus- 
tin, H : " il n'y a point de consequence a tirer d'un siecle a un autre, 
quant au sens des termes. L'usage le fait varier prodigeusement." 

Cf . D. IV. 275, Busiris, B : Of the exact meaning of words Bayle 
says : " Le raisonnement sert de peu de chose dans tout cela, parce que 
la force des mots depend toute de l'usage. Or, pour bien connaitre 
l'usage, il faut ou vivre avec ceux qui se servent d'une langue, ou 
consulter des auteurs que aient marque nettement et precisement les idees 
qui repondaient a tels et tels mots." 

*"D. VII. 190, Gournai, H. Bayle cites La Bruyere {Caracteres, De 
Quelques Usages^ No. 73). Cf. D. I. 124, Accius, P. 

The bad taste of those who cannot endure the style of the older 
writers is deplorable, says Bayle, in speaking of old French. The par- 
ticular beauty or force of their productions is lost when contemporary 
editors retouch them and correct the old-fashioned words and turns 
of expression. Even the orthography should be maintained; exactness 
demands that. Readers should have enough energy to study the old 
language until they are familiar with it. D. XL 275, Ossat; ibid. 276, 
E; cf. D. XL 53, Navarre, N; cf. O. D. III. 1023, iv. 



Style 87 

At the same time, a work crammed with archaic expressions 
that are only to be found in special dictionaries is utterly spoiled. 
A man who indulges in this practice is merely making a show 
of his erudition.*^ 



"D. XIL 436-8, Raynaud, I. 

Cf. ref. to D. I. Accius, supra, p. 86, n. 40. Here Bayle refers to the 
false taste of those Romans who carried their preference for archaic 
expressions too far. He also mentions certain Romans who praised the 
older poets far more than those of the time, " lorsque le latin fut venu 
a sa perfection." From both their mistakes the seventeenth century is 
free. Apropos of the second one Bayle says : " On se contente de mettre 
la Grece et I'ancienne Rome au-dessus de notre siecle; mais on ne 
prefere pas les harangues et les poesies du XVe et du XVIe siecle a 
celles qu'on fait aujourd'hui." 



IX 

ANCIENTS AND MODERNS 

Our author is awake to the dispute which was going on in his 
day concerning the relative merits of the ancients and moderns 
in literature and he ventures some observations on the subject, 
although he does not definitely take sides. He refers only rarely 
to the controversial writings which the ancient and the modern 
camps exchanged, but he is acquainted with some of them. He 
is familiar with Charpentier's Defense de la Langue Franc oise 
pour I' Inscription de I' Arc de Triomphe^ and with his De VExcel- 
lence de la Langue Frangoise? There is mention, but no impor- 
tant criticism, of the writings of Perrault and Boileau.^ There 
is also an allusion to Desmarets' censure of the ancients.* 

The comment which is to be found concerning the general 
characteristics of the Greek and Roman nations, aside from the 
question of literature, does not indicate that Bayle felt any 
sympathetic interest in these peoples. To be sure he praises 
their private and civic probity, and, while he grants that they 
were not perfect and that certain of their vices are deplorable, 
he claims that even if they did not always practice true virtue 
they understood its significance and value.^ Their religious 



^O. D. I. 112. 

^ Bayle reviews this book in the Nouvelles. The general tone of his 
article is favorable, but no final judgment is offered. O. D. I. 112; 
O. D. I. 121. 

«D. II. 169, Apelles, K; D. VII. 67, Duaren, F; D. XII. 13, Phedre, 
D; O. D. IV. 851-2; cf. O. D. I. L. 38, xxi, a reference to Parnasse 
Reforms ; O. D. IV. 730, clxxxvi : " C'est une personne que j'honore 
d'une fagon distinguee," (of Charles Perrault). 

* Cf . infra, p. 90, n. 15. 

"^Cf. D. I. 543, Amphiaraus, H; D. II. 165, Apelles, E; D. IV. 186, 
Brutus (2); D. IV. 188, Brutus (2), A; D. V. 306, Cotys, E; D. VI. 
382, Fabricius, D; D. VI. 386, Fannia (2), A; D. VII. 193, Gramond, 
A; D. VII. 274, Grotius (2), C; D. IX. 493-4, Lucrece; D. X. 174, 
Malherbe, C; O. D. I. L. 40, xxii; O. D. III. 966. 



Ancients and Moderns 89 

system, however, is absurd,^ and the credit for their moral worth 
does not belong here."^ They make their gods ridiculous and 
abominable.^ The poets, who wrote such atrocities about the 
gods, had no fear of them, and by their verses helped to diminish 
the respect for these divinities among their readers.^ The re- 
ligion of the ancients would seem even more barbarous if it 
were not adorned by the conceptions which ancient philosophy 
inspired. ^° Their mythology and their heroic traditions are dis- 
tinguished especially by the hopeless confusion of the various 
stories, by the way in which the stories contradict each other 
and offer widely different tales of the same characters. ^^ It is 
strange that keen-witted and cultured men should have given 
credence to absurd fables, yet with few exceptions the ancients 
accepted these myths, which were merely the product of the 
ingenuity of certain poets. ^^ Ancient mythology has, for Bayle, 
no beauties. 

When he speaks of ancient literature in general, and of its 



" D. I. 262, Agesipolis, A ; D. IV. 485, Cassandre, A ; D. V. 203, Cinyras, 
C; D. VII. 520, 525, Junon, AA, DD; D. VIII. 528-9, Jupiter; D. X. 
411, Metella, A; D. X. 418, Methydre; O. D. III. 308, Ixxxii; O. D. 
III. 348-51, cxv. 

It is admitted that the ancients' conception of inexorable deity driving 
men on to their fate was natural and not unreasonable. Cf. D. VII. 
547-9, Helene, Y; D. XI. 306, Ovide, H. 

'O. D. III. 94, cxlvi; O. D. Ill, 390. 

*D. I. 395, Alcinoe; D. IV. 313, Calenus, A; D. VI. 367-8, Euripide, 
AA; D. VII. 18, Ganymede, B; D. VII. 546, Helene, X; D. VII. 81, 
Hercule, B; D. IX. 14, Lais, B. 

" O. D. III. 381-4. 

^' O. D. III. 970. 

^'D. I. 159, Achille (2), E; D. I. 170, Achillea, F; D. I. 229, Adonis, 
H; D. I. 315, Ajax (2) ; D. II. 336, Aristee, C; D. VII. 504, Harpalyce, 
B; D. VII. 537, Helene, N. 

The morals of the heroes and heroines who figure in these stories are 
deplorable, declares Bayle; they are as libertine as the heroes and 
heroines of modern fiction are proper. He does not suggest any explana- 
tion as to why the ancients, whose virtue he praises in some particu- 
lars, should tolerate such depravity in these characters. D. VIII, 156-7, 
Hypsipyle, C. 

^^D. III. 579-80, Boree, G. 

The Greeks may indeed be called children in this regard, says Bayle. 
Yet their superstitions are not unlike the absurd superstitions of Cath- 
olics in modern times. 



90 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

relation to the modern, his attitude is at times friendly and at 
times not. He grants that the study of the writings of the 
ancients and of the Greek and Latin languages is an important 
part in the education of a young man.^^ He states that we owe 
much to the ancients, that the moderns cannot be credited with 
any great or delicate thoughts which are not to be found in the 
books of the older writers.^* In speaking of Desmarets and his 
criticism of the classic poets he declares that for his part he is 
not against the ancients and thinks them, in most cases, superior.^^ 
But he does not hesitate to question the authority of the ancients 
in matters of literature. He is glad not to be carried away by 
extravagant prejudice in favor of antiquity: 

je ne suis gueres malade, Dieu merci, de cette grande prevention que 
Ton a pour I'Antiquite." 

Many believe that the ancients have written nothing which does 
not have superior merit; they seek a hidden meaning in things 
which seem flat, and which, as a matter of fact, are so. Such 
a point of view is nonsensical ; the ancients as well as the moderns 
are not impeccable.^^ 



"O. D. I. 142, iv; O. D. I. L. 32; cf. D. I. 285, Agricola (5), I; O. D. 
I. L. 47-8. 

Bayle suggests, in one case, that the advantage of studying Greek and 
Latin is in the mental training of the student. He adds, speaking of 
Latin : " Surmontez la difficulte que vous trouverez a composer, car il y 
a mille occasions oil de pouvoir faire des dissertations, des amplifications 
et des lettres en Latin, fait passer sans autre preuve pour un 
oracle . . ." O. D. I. L. 69. Cf. O. D. I. 178, iv. Bayle advocates 
the study of Greek. Interest in this helle langue has declined far too 
much. 

"D. V. 295, Corbinelli, F. It is to be noted that in pointing out the 
excellence of the ancients Bayle instances their metaphysics and ethics. 
In regard to these he suggests, apropos of Descartes, that the moderns 
are superior by reason of their power to select and systematize. 

^O. D. I. L. 60, XXXV. Bayle grants that Desmarets attains a certain 
success in attacking the ancient poets. 

"O. D. IV. 533. Cf. D. III. 572, Boree; D. XIV, 437, Virgile, L; 
Gigas, 28. 

" O. D. IV. 536. Cf . O. D. I. 143, V. 

Cf. O. D. I. 19: Bayle refuses to give a definite opinion of Homer: 
he mentions the differences of critics as to the merits of the Greek, 
and he goes on to say: "On I'a traduit en Frangois depuis peu fort 
purement, et on lui a ote plusieurs bassesses, qui sont tout a fait eloignees 



Ancients aitd Moderns 91 

In the comparisons which Bayle makes concerning the Hterary 
efforts of the ancients and moderns in particular genres he gen- 
erally awards the palm to his contemporaries. He has some- 
thing to say about the poetry of the two schools, and makes a 
few remarks about other methods of literary expression. 

The epic of the ancients is far too simple and na'ive. Homer 
was a great genius and produced masterpieces, but he introduced 
into his work elements that are too common, too bourgeois, ele- 
ments that, in the seventeenth century, could be tolerated only 
in comedy. Doubtless if he had lived in modem times he could 
have written a faultless epic, but as it is, various details of his 
work may be censured on the score of naivete. It is naive to 
represent x\ndromache as lamenting, when Hector dies, that 
little Astyanax will no longer eat sheep fat and marrow while 
seated on his father's knee. It may have been natural for 
Andromache to say this, but it destroys the dignit}^ of the epic.^^ 
The dignity of the epic suffers again w^hen Achilles is repre- 
sented as weeping at the loss of Briseis, his concubine, and, like 
a little boy, carrying his tale of woe to his mother for consola- 
tion.^^ The conduct of Xausicaa when Ulysses presents himself 
to her in Phaeacia is most ingenuous.^^ It is absurd that Phoenix, 



de nos manieres : mais tous ces soins n'ont pas sauve le Prince des 
Poetes du mepris de nos Connoisseurs. Je me garderai bien de dire 
qui sont ceux qui ont le gout deprave; car je ne veux pas subir T Arret 
terrible qu'avec Tapprobation de la plupart de nos Sgavans, le jeune 
Casaubon a prononce sur tous ceux qui n'admirent pas Homere ; ' qui 
Homerum contemnunt vix illis optari quidquam pejus potest quam ut 
fatuitate sua fruantur.'" Bayle's leanings seem evident enough in this 
case. Cf. Lenient, pp. 210, 11. 

O. D. II. 202, xiv. The vanity which characterizes the classic writers, 
says Bayle, offers a bad example for the moderns. " Combien croj^ez-vous. 
Monsieur, que les Vers du troisieme des Georgiques, ou Virgile promet 
a Mantoue sa patrie. et a I'Empereur Auguste, de les immortaliser par 
ses Ouvrages, ont fait mentir de mechans Poetes, qui ont dit a limitation 
de celui-la, que leurs Vers dureroient eternellement? Parce qu'Horace 
et Ovide ont dit que leurs Vers dureroient plus que les marbres, et qu'ils 
resisteroient a toutes les injures du tems, n'y a-t-il pas eu une infinite 
de Poetes bons et mauvais, qui ont prophetise eux-memes I'immortalite 
de leurs Poesies." Bayle also refers to Cicero here. 

" D. II. 99, Andromaque, H. 

"D. I. 160, Achille (2), G. ■ 

'^'D. XL 104-5, Nauzicaa. 



92 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

charged with an important message for Achilles, should, when 
he delivers that message, amuse himself with nurse's tales and 
stories of adventure.^^ Virgil is also open to censure in this 
matter of naivete. It is certain that a countess or marchioness 
would think it bourgeois to express such a sentiment as Dido's 
apropos of Aeneas : 

. Si quis mihi parvulus aula 
Luderet Aeneas. . . .^^ 

The modern poetry is much more free from obscenities than 
the ancient. Catullus and Horace express themselves with a 
license found at present only in such poets as Theophile, Sigogne, 
Motin, and Berthelot, poets 

qui font I'horreur des honnetes gens, et qui ne plaisent qu'a des Soldats 
ou a des Laquais.^^ 

It may be that the seventeenth century is not actually more virtu- 
ous than any other, but it is certain that there is more regard 
for outward decency. The writings of some of the classic poets 
indicate that the ancient times, now so revered, were really rough 
and gross, without any suggestion of true urbanity. ^^ 

In one case the ancient poets had particular merit: they ex- 
celled in depicting passion. Their theory that love is an all- 
powerful divinity is most acceptable, and seems to be the result 
of a careful study of the great book of nature. Bayle calls 
attention to the attitude of Lucretius, who denied the providence 
of the gods but accepted love as the soul of the universe.^* In 
another instance, however, Bayle says that the moderns are 
undoubtedly superior to the ancients. No Greek or Roman 
writer has produced anything which may be compared with 
the Contes of La Fontaine. Certainly the joy of the humanists 
would be great if they should find an ancient author who had 
written anything with the grace and beauty and piquancy that 
characterize La Fontaine's work.^^ 



^D. I. 158, Achille (2), C. 

^^D. II. 99, Andromaque, H. 

^^ O. D. I. 69. Even modern comedy and modern fiction, says Bayle 
here, are freed to some extent from the obscenity that once characterized 
such writings. Cf. D. IV. loi, Brachmanes, K; D. IV. 593, Catulle; 
D. IX. 233, Lycurgue, H; O. D. I. 504, i. 

^O. D. I. 634. 

^O. D. I. 273. V. 



Ancients and Moderns 93 

Bayle offers some slight comment concerning various other 
literary genres. In regard to the drama he suggests that the 
modern public would not tolerate a frankness in calling things 
by their names which did not shock the delicacy of Greek and 
Roman ears.^*^ In one case he compares two plays, the Amphi- 
tryon of Plautus and the Amphitryon of Moliere. The former 
is excellent, but if the outcome of the dispute over ancients and 
moderns depended on these two productions the modems would 
win. Moliere had to make many changes to adapt the piece 
to the French stage; his raillery and iinesse are much superior 
to that of Plautus. ^^ As to memoirs, there are few supporters 
of antiquity so prejudiced as to declare Julius Caesar the superior 
of La Rochefoucauld.^* In the matter of panegyrics, too, Bayle 
claims the victory for his contemporaries — or at least he claims 
that the moderns go to even greater extremes than the ancients 
in this regard. The ancients, indeed, hardly recognized any 
limit : 

II n'y a presque point de louange qu'on ne trouve dans les anciens 
panegyristes. Feu s'en faut que Pline n'ait epuise toutes les idees de 
la perfection d'un souverain.^® 

But the moderns have gone even further: 

les panegyristes modernes poussent leurs idees plus loin que ne faisaient 
les anciens, quoique ceux-ci eussent une plus ample matiere.^° 

The most ardent partisans of the ancients, says Bayle, must 
admit that in this kind of literature their heroes are surpassed.^^ 
In history also the moderns are superior. The ancient historians 
are inaccurate, they neglect details, they do not note carefully 
the events which took place under their very eyes. The moderns, 
given the same opportunities to control the material, could pro- 
duce much better histories.^^ 



^'D. XIV. 59, Tecmesse, B. 

"D. I. 552, Amphitryon, B. 

=='D. V. 30, Cesar, G. 

=«D. VI. 254-5, Ermite, G. 

^"D. VI. 51, Drusus (3), D. Cf. O. D. I. 350; O. D. IV. 535- 

"^D. VI. 51, Drusus (3), C. 

"^D. II. 49, Anaxagoras, K; D. II. 574, Aurelien, I; D. IV. 421, Cap- 
padoce, J; D. IV. 425, Cappadoce, K; D. IV. 504, Cassius (4), F; D. V. 
288, Conon (2), I; D. VI. 382, Fabricius, E; D. VIII. 159, Hirpius, B; 
O. D. I. 617, iii; O. D. I. 633. 



94 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

Bayle does not bring up definitely the question as to whether 
there is any broad underlying principle which should determine 
a preference for the one school or the other. But he at least 
suggests, apropos of the epic, the idea that the real issue is 
the question of progress; that it is not a matter of comparing 
the relative merits of an ancient and a modern individual, but 
of deciding whether the seventeenth century is a step nearer per- 
fection than the preceding ones. If the epics of antiquity are 
imperfect it is the fault of their time.^^ The Hcense of the 
ancient poets is not to.be blamed so much on the individuals as 
on the period in which they lived.^* In a word, our author 
seems to think that since the time of the ancients there has been 
progress. 



Bayle also says that the inaccuracy of the ancients may be noted in 
their works of erudition and that their scientific skill is slight. D. I. 
418, Aldrovandus; D. 11. 257, Archelaus (2), A; D. III. 431, Byblos, 
C; D. VI. 267, Eschyle, H; D. XI. 102, Naucratis, B; O. D. I. 136, 
xiii; O. D. IV. 731. 

^D. II. 99, Andromaque, H; cf. D. I. 160, Achille (2), G; D. XL 105-6, 
Nauzicaa, C; O. D. IV. 534- 

«* O. D. I. 69. 



THE FUNCTION OF THE CRITIC 

The criticism of books is undoubtedly valuable, in Bayle's 
opinion. He does not take up the question directly, he does 
not discuss formally the functions of the critic or the services 
he may render to the world of letters; but his general attitude 
indicates clearly that he believes the role of the literary judge 
to be significant. Whether he thinks that criticism improves 
public taste or plays any part in shaping this taste Bayle does 
not say — indeed he probably had no ideas on the subject, for 
in any case criticism could not mean to him what it has meant 
to the nineteenth century. But of the fact that it is useful to 
the author himself Bayle has no doubt. To be sure there are 
drawbacks. The author is apt to suffer when his work is brought 
before the tribunal. Since no book is perfect a fair judgment 
is certain to hurt;^ it is always possible to find details open to 
censure. And, though it may be maintained that when a book 
is criticised it is brought before the public and given especial 
prominence, this is a doubtful advantage, as is seen in the case 
of the Cid. Certainly M. Corneille had no reason to be thankful 
for the remarks of Scudery and the Academy, which indeed 
brought his fameuse tragicomedie to the attention of the whole 
reading public, but which revealed to this public serious faults.^ 
Yet even if criticism lays bare imperfections and so disturbs the 
peace of an author, it brings mistakes to his attention and enables 
him to correct blemishes which would otherwise have continued 
to disfigure his work.^ This is surely worth while. 



^O. D. IV. 530. 

^O. D. IV. 530. Cf. "En effet il est certain que comme la reputation 
d'une Femme vertueuse ne se releve jamais si parfaitement des blessures 
de la calomnie, qu'elle n'en porte toujours la cicatrice; un savant homme 
qui essuye la censure d'un ennemi redoutable, ne tire jamais si bien son 
epingle du jeu, qu'il n'y laisse quelque chose." 

'O. D. I. 601, viii. 



96 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

The characteristics of Bayle himself as a reader and judge of 
books are shown by various remarks in his writings. These 
remarks are valuable, not only because they reveal his own indi- 
vidual traits, but also because they throw light on his opinions 
concerning the general attitude to be taken by a critic. It is 
desirable in the first place to note these, and then to proceed 
to the more impersonal comments which give further indication 
of his doctrine of criticism. 

The universal curiosity of our author, the interest he takes in 
all kinds of books, is shown by his own observations as to the 
character of his reading. He is omniverous. He shifts from 
works of erudition to the latest novel — ;each book interests him 
in turn and holds for the moment all of his attention. In a 
letter written in 1671 he testifies to the diversity of subjects 
which he covers in his reading.* 

Vous saurez . . . que comme je ne suis pas capable d'une forte 
application, ce qui fait que le dernier Livre que je vois, est celui que 
je prefere a tous les autres, il est arrive que j'ai fait une lecture assez 
vague et assez diversifiee, et que j'ai bien souvent change de tablature 
en peu de terns, car tantot je me suis adonne aux langues, tantot a la 
Philosophic, ensuite a I'histoire, aux antiquitez, a la geographic, et aux 
livres galans, selon que ces diverses matieres m'etoient offertes, et tout 
cela sans faire qu'efleurer les choses, arrivant que je suis toujours 
degoute d'un sujet avant que d'avoir eu le terns de le connoitre, soit 
qu'il ne me plaise plus du tout, soit qu'il me plaise moins que quelqu' autre 
dont la curiosite me prend. D'ou que cela procede, il est certain que 
jamais amant volage n'a plus souvent change de maitresse, que moi de 
livres."^* 

He goes on to speak of some of the books he has read. He 
names first a Greek Grammar by the older Vossius, next Homer, 
Hesiod and Theocritus, then the Latins, Juvenal, Ovid and 
Cicero, and finally a variety of modern authors. The moderns, 
he says, seem to have attracted him more than the ancients. The 
list of modern writers given here includes such men as Saumaise, 
Morus, Milton, Spanheim, Scaliger and le Fevre. He mentions 
also Mile, des Jardins and Mile, de Scudery. This same universal 
interest of Bayle is reflected in a remark to his younger brother.® 
When he writes to his brother concerning some book it does not 



* O. D. I. L. 13. 
» O. D. I. L. 13. 

• O. D. I. L. 37. 



The Function of the Critic 97 

mean that he recommends it, says Bayle; simply it is a new 
book, or he has read it or heard of it — therefore it seems worth 
mentioning. Bayle suggests that he is as superficial in this read- 
ing as he is catholic, that he looks into many books but that he 
does not give them profound thought and that they do not make 
a lasting impression on him.^ Doubtless he glided lightly over 
many subjects, but in view of his own productions and his written 
comments on books, this statement is to be accepted with reserve. 
It certainly cannot be said that Bayle did not think about what 
he read. 

The editor of the Nouvelles states that he is inclined to be 
very lenient when he judges a book. He looks on authors with 
particular favor, on account of the way they devote their efforts 
to the public good, and consequently he is always more ready 
to praise than to blame. 

On se sent un grand penchant a loiier les Livres dont on parle, et c'est 
la moindre reconnoissance que Ton puisse avoir pour un Auteur qui 
nous instruit, et qui a quelquefois travaille plusieurs annees de suite 
avec des fatigues accablantes, a nous faire son present.^ 

This same readiness to criticise favorably is reflected in his 
remarks about the pernicious maxim that a book to be esteemed 
must be without fault.^ Furthermore he objects to the severity 



'Ci. O. D. I. L. 13; O. D. I. L. 107. 

®0. D. I. 102 Avertissement. Cf. O. D. II. 287: Bayle refers to his 
tendency to say that a book is good rather than bad, as a weakness 
which shows lack of penetration; cf. O. D. II. 236: "j'avoue que j'ai 
plus de penchant a trouver qu'un Livre est bon, qu'a trouver qu'il est 
mauvais ;" cf . O. D. IV. 750-1, xix : " II n'y a gueres de Livre qui ne 
me paroisse bon, quand je ne le lis que pour le lire. II faut que pour 
en trouver le foible, je m'attache de propos delibere a le chercher." 
The criticism which is written with a careful regard for proofs, with 
careful thought and meditation, is of course more valuable, says Bayle, 
than the criticism which consists of general praise. 

'O. D. IV. 178, viii; cf. O. D. IV. 580-1, xxxvii: "II est bien vrai, 
que comme il y a des femmes, qui a les prendre en gros, sont mal faites, 
bien qu'elles ayent de tres belles parties, il peut y avoir des Harangues 
et des Livres dignes de consideration si on les examine piece a piece, 
mais dont le corps entier soit defectueux;" cf. D. XII. 94, Pinet, D: 
" Pour peu qu'on soit equitable, et que Ton connaisse la difficulte de 
I'entreprise, on sera incomparablement plus dispose a estimer cet auteur 
a cause de tant d'endroits 011 il a bien rencontre qu'a le mepriser a 
cause de ses bevues." Of a translation of Pliny. 



98 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

of critics who have never themselves tried their hand at author- 
ship.^^ They are apt to be much more exacting than critics who 
have been authors and who have experienced the difficulties of 
the metier; the latter judge with less rigor and more fairness. 
And there are cases where harsh criticism is particularly uncalled 
for; in some instances critics may be much less able to judge 
of the merits of a book than the author himself, although his 
general power of discrimination be inferior to theirs.^^ It is 
possible that he has worked on a particular subject until he 
has an unusual amount of information as to how that subject 
should be treated, and in such a case his judgment is better than 
that of the ordinary critic. Evidently Bayle is ready to show 
a liberal amount of consideration for authors. 

The fairness of spirit recommended to a critic is seen 
in the various editorials, if they may so be called, 
which are inserted in the Nouvelles. In these Avis au 
Lecteur our author outlines the policy which he wishes to 
follow in the conduct of the journal. He may see fit, from 
time to time, to give a definite judgment of a. book, but 
certainly any remarks which are introduced will be free from 
malice, and will be couched in such terms as not to irritate 
the author in question. He does not, by any means, set himself 
up as a final judge; whosoever sees fit may appeal from his 
decisions. Indeed tastes so vary that a man should show neither 
astonishment nor chagrin when others fail to agree with him. 
Any remarks which Bayle makes are subject to the corrections 
of the readers. If a reader convinces him of a mistake in a 
fact or an opinion he will be grateful and will publish the 
matter in the Nouvelles, provided, of course, that the censure 
is not vindictive and personal. He is not one who believes that 
the dignity of an author suffers when he shows a willingness to 
submit his work to the public and to be corrected by the public. 



"■' D. VII. 470, Haillan, I ; D. XV. 246, Dissert, cont. le Pro jet, C. 

Cf. O. D. I. 295, iii: It is easier to criticise another man's book than 
to write a book oneself which shall be as good. 

"D. VII. 471, Haillan, I. Bayle adds a personal note; he says he 
knows better how the Dictionary should be written than some of his 
critics. 



The Function of the Critic 99 

In short, if Bayle sees fit to criticise a book, he will be fair and 
moderate, and not claim that he is tout le monde.^^ 

This same insistence upon fairness, and upon the exactness 
necessary in an equitable judge, is further indicated in remarks 
outside of the Noiivelles}^ Bayle states that when a man sets 
out to judge a book he should take into consideration the age 
and position of the writer, the nature of the subject which he 
is treating, and the kind of public he is appealing to in his 
production.^* Bayle dwells particularly on this need of consider- 
ing the purpose of the author. He speaks of this apropos of 
Fontenelle's Histoire des Oracles}^ The public is apt to censure 
a book which is full of erudition but which is dry and unattrac- 
tive; the public is equally ready to find fault with a work more 
distinguished for polish than for learning. In either case the 
public is very likely wrong. For, above all, the end which the 



"Cf. O. D. I. 2, loi, 196, 504. Cf. also O. D. IV. 614, Ixiii; 620; 
621, Ixxi. 

Cf. also D. XVI. lo-ii, Pref. de la Premiere Ed, iv: Bayle says that 
he ventures to correct authors in the same spirit that a humble soldier 
might criticise his general — all the while recognizing his own inferiority. 

Cf. also D. XV. 10, Zabarella, G: Bayle explains that he has changed 
opinion concerning a book which he first knew only through others, 
and which he has since read himself. He does not suppress his earlier 
opinion, already published, but admits frankly that he was wrong. 

Cf. also O. D. I. 440: It is suggested that a man of good sense would 
not try to give a final judgment of the worth of an author. " Ce seroit 
trop se commettre, et usurper un Empire dont on secoiieroit le joug 
incessaniment et qui ne reiissiroit pas meme dans Rome a un Concile 
de Trente." 

Bayle holds that authors should accept his criticisms in the spirit 
which prompts them. He judges his own friends, he says, with par- 
ticular freedom, and believes they will understand his motives. Indeed 
it is a slur on an author to hesitate in criticising him; it implies that 
he is not broad enough to accept corrections in the right way. D. VI. 
603, Fronton, C; D. XV. 234-5. Dissert, cont. le Pro jet, vi; O. D. I. 
508, iii. 

Cf. also O. D. II. 165 : Bayle testifies to his own willingness to be 
corrected (apropos of the Critique Generate de VHistoire du Calvinisme) ; 
cf. O. D. IV. 621, Ixx. 

" Cf. D. XII. 217, Polonus, B : " deux qualities essentielles a un bon 
censeur, I'equite et I'exactitude." Apropos of religious controversy. 

" D. III. 493, Boccace, I. 

^=0. D. I. 750. 



I oo The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

author seeks to attain must be considered, and it may be that 
he is writing for men of science who would be content only 
with a work that bristles with learning, or it may be that he 
is catering to the popular taste and tries to choose what would 
be interesting and diverting for the ordinary reader. ^"^ Many 
would-be critics of books need to have this distinction brought 
before them. Exactness demands that one should be extremely 
careful in reporting the remarks of an author. A critic must 
set up for himself a hard and fast rule: let him report the 
statement of his author accurately, adding nothing and taking 
nothing away. He must not draw conclusions from an author's 
statement and refer to them as the author's own, unless the 
latter admits them as such.^^ 

Criticism, then, is to be carefully restricted by the demands of 
impartiality and accuracy. But these are the only limitations 
upon which Bayle insists; indeed he dwells especially on the 
liberties which a critic may allow himself once he has recognized 
these requirements. The Republic of Letters is a free state; 
its citizens are on equal terms and there is no such thing as 
special favor. The law has no authority in this dominion. It 
is deplorable for a man, engaged in criticizing another in the 
Republic of Letters, to call upon the law to defend him against 
his adversary, to appeal to the authority of the magistrates to 
suppress the other man's books. Such an action betrays the 
weakness of his own position, lays him open to ridicule and 
increases interest in the writings of his opponent. He may 
derive a certain satisfaction from showing the world at large 
his influence in the courts, and he may convince some ignorant 



" Bayle adds : " Cest un merite bien plus releve qu'on ne pense, que 
composer un Ecrit dont les materiaux valent moins que la f agon. . . ." 
O. D. I. 750. 

" D. III. 122, Barlette, B ; cf . D. V. 6, Cerinthus, B : " quel droit a-t-on 
d'imputer a un auteur un detail qu'il n'expose pas?"; cf. O. D. IV. 175: 
a reference to " le soin de n'imputer pas aux Auteurs que Ton critique 
ce qu'ils n'ont point dit;" cf. also O. D. I. 449-50: "Car lors qu'il s'agit 
de rendre compte d'un Livre, j'y aporte toute I'attention dont je suis 
capable . . . ;" cf. also D. III. 331, Berenger: " quand on appuie 
trop rigidement sur certaines expressions, sans se revetir de cet esprit 
d'equite qui cherche le sens d'un auteur dans le but et dans les principes 
de ses ouvrages, on trouve aisement des propositions erronees." Of an 
accusation that Saint Bernard was heterodox. 



The Function of the Critic loi 

people that, since the other man's books are so condemned, they 
contain falsehoods; but he is wrong to introduce law into a 
matter with which law has nothing to do.^® The only tribunals 
recognized in the Republic of Letters are those presided over 
by Truth and Reason. Before these each citizen of the state 
is on absolutely the same basis as his fellows, and before these 
he has the right and duty, when occasion arises, to criticise his 
best friends and the members of his own family. It is just that 
one citizen of the Republic should refute another who has, he 
thinks, made a mistake; the credit of the second man may, indeed, 
be impaired, but his critic has to take the same chance, and it 
is all in the interest of truth. ^^ 

With the principle established that there shall be absolute 
freedom of speech in the Republic of Letters within the bounds 
of justice, the question remains as to what standards shall be 
set up for judging a literary work. Is there an absolute code 
of tastes according to which each case may be decided? Nat- 
urally enough, Bayle does not give the matter any formal treat- 
ment. But various remarks give some indication of his ideas 
on the subject. He does have something to say on standards of 
taste, and there are some suggestions as to the possibility of 
variance in these standards according to time and environment. 

Taste is really an individual matter, and each individual has 
a standard of his own, based upon his own particular make-up. 



^^D. XIV. 134-7, 140-1, Thomas, D. E. I. Apropos of the quarrel of 
Girac and Costar. Cf. D. XIV. 49, Tavernier, E: THe public is the 
natural tribunal for judging a dispute among men of letters, but a 
controversial writer may indeed appeal to the courts when his personal 
honor is attacked in an insulting libel. 

^® D. IV. 584, Catius, D. Bayle speaks especially of savants. He also 
brings up the question of libels in the Republic of Letters and attacks 
the practice with some vigor ; cf . O. D. IV. 529, iv : A ref . to " le 
genie republicain et independant du bel Esprit ;" cf . O. D. II. 203, vii : 
Bayle characterises the Republic of Letters and speaks once more of the 
need of avoiding malice. He says : " II importe au bien general de la 
Republique des Lettres, la plus libre, et la plus independante de toutes 
les Societes, que personne n'entreprenne impunement sur la liberte des 
autres, et que Ton fasse sentir avec usure a ceux qui foulent aux pieds 
les regies de I'honnetete, ce qu'ils ont fait sentir a leurs Confreres;" 
cf. O. D. I. 444, Avertiss: Readers and, authors in the Republic of 
Letters have the right to criticise each other freely. 



102 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

One of Bayle's comments on the variety of ways in which differ- 
ent people will judge the same thing is especially interesting. 

Plusieurs personnes regardant un meme tableau, Chef-d'oeuvre d'un 
Michel Ange, et en font mille jugemens differens. Celui qui est dans 
le point de viae, et qui est connoisseur le trouve admirable; d'autres qui 
le regardent d'un autre point, et qui n'ont nul gout, ni habilite, le 
meprisent. Le connoisseur pourra se moquer tant qu'il lui plaira de 
leur ignorance, ou en avoir pitie; mais il seroit ridicule s'il les accusoit 
de mentir, et de soutenir malicieusement que le Tableau ne vaut rien, 
pendant qu'ils savent le contraire. Oh! mais la beaute de ce Tableau 
est si visible qu'il n'y a pas moyen de ne la voir pas ! Qui vous a dit 
cela, et vous-meme qui la connoissez si bien, voyez-vous la bonte et 
la beaute de certaines pierreries qu'un Joiiaillier pretend qui doit sauter 
aux yeux de tout le monde? Vous trouvez peut-etre le vin de Canarie 
si bon, que vous croyez qu'il ne faut qu'avoir une langue pour sentir 
cette bonte; mais combien y a-t-il de gens qui valent autant que vous, 
et qui ne boivent que de I'eau, qui ne sauroient mettre dans leur 
bouche le vin sans le trouver tres-mauvais. Ainsi c'est une ignorance 
crasse du monde, et de I'homme principalement, que de juger du gout 
d'autrui par le notre.^** 

Beyond this fact of the variability of taste Bayle has only one 
general principle to lay down on the subject; but on this one 
he insists with considerable definiteness. The judgment of con- 
noisseurs is infinitely superior to that of the general public; the 
testimony of the minority is, in many cases, much more weighty 
than that of the majority. ^^ It is true, of course, that a work 
of art which is approved both by the people and by the critics 
of the metier may be reckoned better than one which wins the 
votes of the latter only. There are certain branches of art, such 
as painting, music and oratory, which, appealing to the senses, 
often have a distinct attraction for both classes. But when it 
comes to a choice between the approbation of the one class or 
of the other, as often happens in the case of qualites de I'esprit, 
there is no doubt as to which is the more desirable. The drama, 
to be sure, is meant, above all, to please the people, and therefore 
a playwright is excusable for catering to their taste, but certainly 
the praise of those few who are well acquainted with the details 
of composing a piece is much surer proof of excellence than the 



^O. D. II. 396. It must be noted that this is part of an argument 
which Bayle uses in a religious controversy. 
^O. D. III. 200-204. 



The Function of the Critic 103 

commendation accorded by the general public. Oratory offers 
another example. If those who give public addresses had to 
choose between pleasing the crowd and pleasing a select few, 
the common weal would probably demand that they choose the 
first alternative. But, in any case, a speech or sermon which 
receives the vote of the connoisseurs is certainly superior to one 
approved only by the vulgar herd. 

Just as Bayle insists on the value of the opinions given by 
the elect, so he decries the importance of popular judgments. 
Often enough the reading public does not understand the art of 
reading,^^ and the mistakes and indeed the unfairness of this 
public are manifest in a variety of ways.^^ They are careless ;^* 
they skip the passages which they do not understand at first 
glance, and label them obscure ;^^ they jump at conclusions.^* 
Bayle declaims with particular vigor against this precipitate kind 
of judgment in the case of certain remarks he makes on an 
edition of La Fontaine's fables. Because he praises the fables 
in some respects the readers will at once conclude, he says, that 
La Fontaine is incomparable in every way. That is the habit 
of readers : if they see an author praised for his learning they 
at once conclude he is also polished, discerning and keen ; if 
they see his intelligence commended they immediately infer that 
he is also noteworthy for erudition. Certainly these people do 
not know how to discriminate.^^ Moreover, readers are vain, and 
it is pleasing to their self esteem, and gives them, as well, a 
certain malignant satisfaction, to be able to criticise a book.^* 



" Cf . O. D. I. 562, " I'art de lire, qui est une chose peu connue." 

"Cf. O. D. IV. 880, cccxliii: "On ne peut rien voir de plus injuste 
que la plupart des Lecteurs." Bayle speaks apropos of his own con- 
troversial writings. 

'*Cf. O. D. I. 290, ix. 

'^D. II. 264, Archelaus (3), F. 

^ Cf . O. D. I. 264, iv ; O. D. I. 529, ii. 

"O. D. I. 274, V. 

''O. D. II. 161. The references to this Avis (O. D. II. 161-3) are to 
comments Bayle makes apropos of the publication of the Nouvelles Let- 
tres . . . sur FHist. du Calvinisme. He is arguing that a writer's 
second book is not apt to receive as warm a welcome as his first and 
he makes these statements in support of that. 

Cf : " Se porter simplement pour Juge de la bonte d'un Ouvrage, c'est 
quelque chose. Mais juger qu'un Livre est meilleur qu'un autre, c'est 



I04 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

They are easily dazzled with what is brilliant, and they do not 
attach the right significance to solid values. They are inclined 
to judge a book like a painting. 

Ceux qui ne savent pas a fond les finesses de la peinture, jugent 
toujours de la beaute d'un Tableau par la vivacite du coloris : ils ne 
sont presque sensibles qu'aux enlumineures : les manieres les plus finies 
qui ont toujours quelque chose de sec, ne les touchent pas. II en va 
de meme de la plupart des Lecteurs. Un Livre ou Ton ne s'est rien 
pardonne, et d'ou Ton a banni rigoureusement tous les ornemens superflus 
ne leur paroit qu'un squelette desagreable."^^ 

The taste for novelties, characteristic of all mankind, makes 
readers more enthusiastic about the first production of an author 
than about what he writes after they have become well ac- 
quainted with his work.^^ Here is another manifestation of the 
uncertainty of the judgment of the reading public: on account 
of this novelty-seeking their taste may be depraved; they may 
fail to appreciate the merits of a book by a well-known author 
merely because it lacks the charm of the unfamiliar. There is 
perhaps a certain malignity in this case too; a reader rather 
enjoys finding fault with an author whose general success has 
become a little wearisome.^^ Balzac is an example of a writer 
who has suffered from the caprices of the public; his first pro- 
ductions are admired far more than the later ones, although 
decidedly inferior to them.^^ And sometimes an author is re- 



bien plus. Le discernement du bon d'avec le meilleur flate tout autre- 
ment notre vanite que le discernment du bon d'avec le mauvais. Aussi 
on se sent porte par I'amour propre a juger, que de deux Ouvrages 
composez par un habile homme, Tun est plus parfait que I'autre." More- 
over our malignity makes us take pleasure in seeing the reputation of 
an author lowered, so we are especially ready to say that his second 
production is not as good as his first. O. D. II. i6i. 

^'O. D. II. 162. 

^" O. D. II. 162. It may be, adds Bayle, " qu'en toutes choses on soit 
plus dispose a faire sa cour an Soleil levant qu'au Soleil couchant." 
Cf. above, page 103, note 28, second paragraph. 

On the ups and downs of authors cf. D. VI. 265, Eschyle, G, and 
O. D. III. 552: "La Republique du bel esprit est comme la Cour de 
Roboam, I'avis des jeunes Conseillers y est prefere a celui des vieux." 
Apropos of the fall of Cotin. 

^^ O. D. II. 162. Bayle cites Sorel as his authority for this ; cf . D. 
III. 73, Balzac (2), G. 



The Function of the Critic 105 

jected merely because his name does not happen to suit the ear.^^ 
Truly the reading public is made up of strange people.^^ 

But even if it is agreed that the opinions of ordinary readers 
are of slight value, and that the standards set by critics of experi- 
ence are to be followed, the matter of judging still remains 
complicated. The best connoisseurs do not agree among them- 
selves.^* The same fact of the variability of tastes and standards 



''O. D. II. 162-3. 

^* Cf . O. D. I. 334. Bayle says, apropos of religious controversy : " II 
faut avouer que la plupart des Lecteurs sont d'etranges gens; on a beau 
les avertir de mille choses; on a beau leur recommander ceci ou cela 
avec de tres-humbles prieres ; ils n'en suivent pas moins leur humeur 
et leur coutume. On a fait des Historiettes sur les precautions inutiles 
des Meres et des Maris. Je m'etonne qu'on n'en fasse sur celles de 
Messieurs les Auteurs." 

As to what kind of readers would be most desirable for an author, 
provided he could choose, Bayle says he would recommend those neither 
too learned nor too ignorant. The first discern faults too readily, the 
others have not enough discrimination to pick out the good points. 
Bayle agrees with Lucilius on this score and cites Cicero's expression 
of the same idea. D. IX. 486, Lucilius, F. Cf . however, O. D. I. 505 : 
Bayle approves the remark of Mile, le Fevre, where she classifies readers 
into three groups according to whether their taste is good, bad or 
indifferent, and where she indicates her preference for the first class. 

Although he makes these scornful remarks about the characteristics 
of readers in general, Bayle indicates clearly that in his own writings 
he believes in catering to their various tastes. He wishes to produce 
works that shall please all classes of citizens in the Republic of Letters 
— and they are legion (O. D. IV. 753, xxx.) — by the diversity and inter- 
est of the material presented. He does not himself care to write merely 
for the select few who would have him omit such points of erudition 
as are already known to the learned, and who are impatient at such 
digressions as serve only to refresh the everyday reader after troubling 
his everyday brain with abstract problems of philosophy and theology. 
Various comments of some length show Bayle's attitude. For remarks 
in reference to the Dictionary, cf. D. VII. 112, Gomarus, B; D. XV. 
232, Dissert, cont. le Proiet; D. XV. 376, Preface de M. Bayle; O. D. 
IV. 753, xxix. Of the Nouvelles, cf . O. D. I. 101-2 ; O. D. IV. 615. Of 
Pensees diverses a I'Occasion d'une Comete, cf. O. D. I. L. 142, xcvi. Of 
Nouvelles Lettres . . . sur I'Histoire du Calvinisme, cf. O. D. II. 164. Of 
Reponse aux Questions d^un Provincial, cf . O. D. III. 501 ; O. D. III. 897 ; 
O. D. IV. 840, cccii. On the difficulty of pleasing the public, cf. O. D. II. 
252, xiii. 

^*Cf. D. XIV. 170, Timee, G: "que les meilleurs juges des ouvrages 
de I'esprit ne s'accordaient guere mieux anciennement qu'aujourd'hui 



io6 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

is manifest in the case of the elect. In any instance, the fate 
which a book meets at the hands of the pubHc is more or less 
a matter of chance.^^ All rules are inadequate. The Cid and 
Montaigne's Essais are most irregular, but have met with unusual 
success. ^^ There is only one principle which is incontestable : 
de gustibus non est disputandum.^"^ 

Although the Rotterdam sceptic sees so little that suggests 
uniformity in any aspect of the question of taste, he is inclined 
to grant that the standards which may prevail at any given 
time have enough in common to differentiate them from the 
standards which characterize other periods. He is ready to 
admit that methods of literary expression and the principles by 
which these methods shall be judged vary as units from age 
to age. 

Of the world in general he agrees, of course, that there is a 
marked difference in the manners, language^ point of view, etc., 
of the successive centuries.^® He does not hold, however, to 

. . . ;" cf . D. VIII. 403, Jove, F : " N'en f aut-il pas conclure que 
le gout des plus excellens critiques n'est pas uniforme sur une matiere 
qui ne devrait point partager les jugemens?" Apropos of the style of 
Paul Jove. 

^ Cf. Gigas, 39, 40 ; cf. O. D. I. 714, vi. " II est sur que le caprice 
de I'etoile domine autant sur les Livres et sur la reputation des Ecrivains, 
que sur aucune autre chose, et que c'est un ressort plus puissant que 
les eloges ou que la censure de tels et de tels . . . ;" cf. D. XV. 
212, Dissert, sur le Jour, VI : " le bonheur qui preside sur certains 
ecrits . . . ;" cf. also O. D. III. 204: "Vous n'ignorez point ce 
que I'esprit de cabale, le caprice, ou le changement de gout, la com- 
plaisance interessee, contribuent quelquefois a faire avoir plus de vogue 
a ceux qui n'excellent pas autant que d'autres dans les beaux arts ; " 
cf. also O. D. I. 79, iii: " rien ne donne tant d'envie d'avoir un Livre 
que la difficulte de le trouver; et c'est bien souvent par cette difficulte 
que des Livres qui ne valent rien, acquierent une grande reputation." 
Apropos of a religious controversy. , 

*'D. XII. 28, Philistus, E. Bayle cites La Bruyere in a passage where 
the latter comments on the difference between a hel ouvrage and un 
ouvrage parfait ou regulier, and takes the Cid as an example. 

^^ Cf . O. D. I. L. 146, xcviii : " on ne dispute point des gouts ; cf . O. 
D. I. 171 ; " Cela nous doit montrer que la beaute n'est qu'un jeu de 
notre imagination, qui change selon les pais et selon les siecles." Apropos 
of the taste of the ancients, who considered a petit front a mark of 
beauty. 

^O. D. II. 256: "Si les Frangois du cinquieme siecle revenoient au 
monde, il ne retrouveroient pas en France ni leur langue, ni leurs moeurs, 



The Function of the Critic 107 

the idea that these changes point to a distinct progress. The 
moral development of man is nil; his history is a history of 
alternate ups and downs and, at the end, he is left where he 
started. 

Le monde est un veritable jeu de bascule; tour a tour on y monte et 
on y descend. On doit admirer dans ce jeu- la les profondeurs d'une 
sage providence, et I'activite de nos passions. . . . D'ici a deux 
mille ans, si le monde dure autant, les reiterations continuelles de la 
bascule n'auront rien gagne sur le coeur humain.^® 

In his attack on the practice of bringing the secular arm of the 
state to bear against those accused of heretical doctrine, Bayle 
speaks with particular definiteness on this lack of progress. The 
world is too unsteady to profit from past weaknesses.**^ And in 
one of his letters Bayle puts the shifting in morals and the shift- 
ing in matters of learning into the same classification. 

II en va des mceurs comme des Sciences. Celles-ci ne vont pas en 
augmentant. Parvenues a un haut degre, elles font place peu a peu a 
I'ignorance; et, a leur tour, les Slecles barbares, parvenus au comble, 
font place a une nouvelle naissance de I'erudition. Cest ce que I'Histoire 
nous apprend.^ 

On various occasions Bayle points out instances of the changes 



ni leurs manieres de s'habiller, de batir, d'apreter les viandes, de faire 
la guerre, de terminer leur proces etc. Et si Ton parcourt toutes les 
Nations du monde, et que Ton compare les loix, les moeurs, la Langue 
qu'elles ont en un certain siecle, avec les loix, les moeurs, la Langue qu'elles 
avoient dix ou douze siecles auparavant on y trouve des differences 
enormes." (part of an argument de circonstance) ; cf. D. I. 242, Agar ; 
D. IV. 104, Brasavolus, C; D. VI. 41, Drusius, B ; O. D. IV. 537- 

^D. VI. 284-5, Esope (2), I. 

*°D. I. 61, Abelard, O. Bayle's attitude on religious tolerance undoubt- 
edly makes him speak with the more vigor here. 

"O. D. IV. 731 ; cf. D. I. 514, Amyraut, F: " Le pis est qu'on ne 
profite pas du passe." Of a certain religious doctrine; O. D. I. y2:^\ 
"c'est la destinee de I'homme de profiter peu du tems passe, et de 
laisser revenir les memes fautes, aussi-bien que les memes modes ; " D. V. 
278, Conecte, C : " Combien les modes ont leur flux et leur reflux ;" O. D. I. 
708-9 : " On se lasse de tout, et c'est pour cela que les modes les plus 
courues disparoissent tot ou tard. II y en a peu qui s'en aillent pour 
toujours; elles ressuscitent presque toutes apres un certain nombre d'annes. 
Je ne sais si les Recueils des Pieces choisies qui ont ete autrefois si a la 
mode, et qui ont tant fait gagner les Libraires, se releveront un jour de 
leur chute." 



io8 T]ie Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

which take place in things literary from age to age, from gen- 
eration to generation, even. There is a marked difference be- 
tween the majestic simplicity of style characteristic of Virgil, 
Cicero and the writers of their day and the dazzling but inferior 
brilliancy of Pliny the Younger, Seneca and Tacitus, who repre- 
sent a later period in Latin literature.*^ The difference in the 
age is noticeable in the case of Lucretius. His eloquence was 
so excellent that if he had lived in the Augustan age he might 
have rivaled Virgil. But thirty or forty years may occasion a 
vital difference between two authors. The poets who lived at 
the time of Henry IV. and those who lived during the minority 
of Louis XIV. give irrefutable evidence of the changes which 
occur.*^ 

The seventeenth century is different from those which pre- 
ceded it. Contrasted with the sixteenth it may be said to be 
more clever, but less learned. The sixteenth century men of 
letters devoted themselves to erudite criticism, and gathered a 
vast number of facts; their successors have a different taste 
and have been distinguished rather by the fineness of their dis- 
cernment, the nicety of their intelligence.** Bayle refers a num- 
ber of times to the enlightenment of his own age, but he is 



*^D. XII. 334, Priolo, L. 

*^0. D. I. 339, iv; cf. D. IX. 511, Lucrece (2), B: Ba3'le suggests 
that a writer's style does not always place him definitely in a particular 
period. " Combien avons-nous d'auteurs plus jeunes que Balzac, qui 
ecrivaient en vieux gaulois pendant que Balzac ecrivait eloquemment et 
poliment ? " 

Cf . D. IV. 141, Briseis, E : " Je sais bien que dans tous les siecles on ne 
juge pas des choses sur le meme pied, et que je dois consentir qu'on rabatte de 
mon parallele ce qu'on jugera a propos; mais jamais on ne sauvera le 
raisonnement d'Horace; et au pis aller, nous connaitrons qu'au temps 
d'Homere les idees de la raison etaient encore bien confuses, 
puisqu'Achille, dans I'lliade, s'exprime ainsi : 'J'aimais Briseis de tout 
mon cceur, quoique la force des armes I'eut fait tomber entre mes 
mains.' " 

Bayle criticises Horace for alleging the love of Achilles for Briseis 
to prove that it is allowable to love a servant. Briseis was a queen in 
captivity, and the parallel is a poor one. Bayle merely echoes the sen- 
timent of Menage, but shows that he agrees with him fully. 

** D. I. 183, Aconce, D : Bayle quotes le pere Rapin and grants that he 
is merely echoing the opinion of this author as to the difference betvv^een 
the two centuries. 



The Function of the Critic 109 

hardly inclined to admit that it is especially superior in this 
regard.*^ 

The literary changes which Bayle mentions seem to represent 
to him a mere swaying to and fro, rather than a motion which 
is ever steadily in one direction. This idea is brought out 
when he speaks of the standards of modesty maintained in novel 
writing. 

On voit regner dans cette sorte d'Ecrits le meme flux et reflux qui se 
remarque par tout ailleurs; on s'eloigne d'un certain caractere, et puis 
on y retourne. M. d'Urfe donna plus de modestie a ses personnages 
qu'on n'avoit fait auparavant. Ceux qui I'ont suivi ont ete encore plus 
austeres, mais voila que Ton se raproche de I'ancienne licence.*^ 

Methods of literary expression may be almost wholly a matter 
of chance, Bayle suggests, in referring to the persistence of 
the pastoral genre. It happened that Theocritus pleased Virgil, 
and that the Occident has accepted the literary tastes of the 
Greeks and Romans — wherefore pastorals are still being written. 
This is entirely fortuitous.*^ Certainly Bayle has little idea of 
any evolution in letters.*^ But he thinks that the differences as 
to taste in different ages are worth noting, and various refer- 
ences indicate his belief that in judging individual authors one 



*^D. I. 14, Abaris, I. Bayle says that for the most part "notre siecle 
est aussi dupe que les autres " in listening to diviners, would be prophets, 
etc. O. D. I. 34 : " On se pique dans ce siecle d'etre extremement 
eclaire: cependant on n'a peut-etre jamais eu plus de hardiesse a debiter 
des fables visiblement contradictoires " (apropos of History). O. D. I. 
555- "Voila de ces choses . . . qui oblige plusieurs personnes a 
dire . . . que notre siecle, avec toutes les lumieres dont il se vante, 
est plus fou que les precedens. . . ." Apropos of the dragonnade 
in France. 

Note, however, these cases where Bayle speaks favorably of his own 
age : O. D. I. L. 99, Ixv : " les lumieres de ce siecle delicat et savant," 
etc. ; O. D. I. 41, xi : Apropos of scientific Academies Bayle says : 
"Ainsi nous voila dans un siecle qui va devenir de jour en jour plus 
eclaire, de sorte que tous les siecles precedens ne seront que tenebres 
en comparaison." 

*'0. D. I. 651, i. 

" O. D. I. 634. 

^ Cf. however, O. D. II. 201. Bayle approves a passage from I'EgUse 
Protestante jiistiiiee par I'EgUse Romaine, wherein is a suggestion that 
poetic standards progress from age to age. 



no The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

should take into account the standards of excellence which pre- 
vailed during their particular periods.*^ 

There is another factor to be considered in the judging of a 
book ; the question of the milieu in which the author wrote. At 
least Bayle suggests this, although here again he does not give 
any definite comment on the subject. There are various refer- 
ences to the curiosity of those who like to know about the lives 
of authors and the circumstances under which their works are 
written, and Bayle seems to think that it is worth while to gratify 
such curiosity.^^ Apparently he thinks that these data may have 
significance in the criticising of a book.^^ 

He mentions several influences which may have some effect on 
an author and his productions. He has nothing to say as to 
what may be the importance of woman in the Republic of Let- 
ters, but he grants that the sex 

a ete la principale occasion, et le meilleur instrument de la civilite et 
de la politesse qui s'est vue parmi les hommes. . . .^^ 

Court life gives a certain polish and esprit, but does not develop 
the solid intelligence able to grapple with the problems of 
theology and philosophy.^^ Men of letters who can live in a 
big city have a very distinct advantage.^* It is there that they 
can count on a good supply of books, that they can hear the best 
teachers and draw inspiration from conversations with the most 
learned. There is no better place to acquire a polished correct- 



*®Cf. D. 11. 283, Aretin, A: "II (Aretino) etait assez bon poete. II 
faut entendre ceci en egard a ce temps — la . . . ;" cf. D. II. 584, 
Ausone : " Generalement parlant, il y a des duretes dans ses manieres, 
et dans son style; mais c'etait plutot le defaut du siecle, que celui de 
son esprit." Of Ausonius. For similar remarks, cf. D. III. 24, Badius, 
L; D. IV. 15, Bossus; D. X. 338, Marsus, D. 

"»0. D. I. 134, x; O. D. I. 140, ii; O. D. I. 601, viii; O. D. III. 
508, iii. 

'^Ci. O. D. I. 284, iv; O. D. I. 3S2, vii; O. D. I. 574, iv; O. D. I. 
678, i ; etc. In these cases Bayle gives such details himself about the 
authors whose works he describes, with the implication that they may 
have a bearing on the criticism of the books. 

"O. D. II. 283, vii; cf. D. IX. 215, Lycurgue, D; O. D. II. 286, xvii. 

" O- D. III. 99, cliii. This is part of an argument de circonstance. 

^ O. D. III. 503-7, i, ii ; cf. O. D. I. L. 47 : Bayle recommends his 
younger brother not to come to Paris until he has attained some 
maturity. 



The Function of the Critic 1 1 1 

ness in speech, and an understanding of good taste. Country life, 
to be sure, has its advantages for those who need quiet medita- 
tion rather than many books and associates ; and those men are 
happy who can shift from city to country as they Hke.^^ But 
writers who have been brought up in provincial surroundings 
labor under very considerable difficulties. Bayle mentions the 
fact that the beaux esprits of a capital city are inclined to lay 
claim to a distinct superiority over those of the provinces, and 
he is ready to think that there is a real basis for this claim.^^ 
Provincials generally retain a suggestion of their country rude- 
ness, however much they may have gotten away from the influ- 
ence of their own district. Bayle makes one or two remarks 
on the influence of his home life on a man of letters. There 
may be cases where an author, free from the cares of marriage, 
makes more progress than a family man, but it is quite impos- 
sible to lay down any hard and fast rule to this effect. Often 
the man with domestic responsibilities is more active and accom- 
plishes more when at work than the bachelor who has plenty of 
leisure for letters.^^ 

Beyond these remarks there is hardly any suggestion of the 
influence environment may have. Bayle lays much more stress 



^^ Bayle adds : " II f aut avoiier que la simple profession des Lettres 
conduit rarement a cette fortune-la: bien des Auteurs sont reduits a 
louer des chambres proche du toit, et ne peuvent pas paier ponctuelle- 
ment le proprietaire, ni eviter I'exploit d'un Sergent: et tant s'en faut 
qu'ils possedent des maisons de rechange, ils n'ont gueres qu'un habit." 
O. D. III. 507, ii. 

^ D. XI. 330-1, Pays, B ; cf . O. D. I. 305 : Bayle is speaking of the 
accusation of patavinity made against Livy. Note the following remark 
apropos of this : " C'est ainsi peut-etre qu'il f audroit f aire pour bien 
juger des censures des Anciens : ii f audroit voir comment on traiteroit 
en ce siecle ceux qui se trouveroient en semblable cas." 

" D. XIV. 502-3, Usserius, B : The remarks are made apropos of 
religious controversial writing; cf. D. III. 25, Baduel, A: Bayle praises 
a book which recommends marriage for gens de lettres. 

Cf. D. XVI. 8, Pref. de la i^ Ed, ii. Bayle is glad, for his own writing, 
that he has so much leisure. 

Cf. O. D. I. 177, Avertissement: "i\ est rare de voir des (A) Tira- 
queaux qui se signalent egalement par le grand nombre de leurs pro- 
ductions spirituelles, et de leurs productions corporelles." 

A. " Durant 30 annees Tiraqueau publia un Livre et fit un enfant a 
sa femme tous les ans." 



112 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

upon the influence of time, upon the importance of the particular 
age in which an author lives. In neither case does he treat the 
subject formally, but it seems indisputable that he thinks these 
things factors to be considered by the critic. 

The critic's duties, then, are clear-cut. When he opens a book 
he shall be as nearly unbiased as is humanly possible; he shall 
bend all his energies to finding out exactly what the author 
says; and he shall consider the circumstances under which the 
book was written, and the object for which it was intended. 
Then he may speak with absolute freedom, assured that criticism 
conducted in this way is valuable. 



XI 

Summary of Bayle's Opinions; His Characteristics and 
Rank as a Critic 

It is clear that with Bayle literature is hardly a matter of 
art and that he is not a man of artistic discernment. He is 
interested in letters because he is interested in everything, and 
he talks about letters because, in true journalistic fashion, he 
has ideas to express on all subjects. His opinions enlighten us 
as to the kind of man he was, even in the very fact that they 
show a lack of aesthetic judgment, and they are to some extent 
a suggestion of what the literary tastes of the following cen- 
tury — really Bayle's own — will be. 

The calling of letters is, in his opinion, a dignified and serious 
one, a calling which demands men of superior qualities, and 
which may be expected to lift them above common, earthy faults. 
High ideals of conduct are required. When writers disagree 
among themselves their disputes must be settled in the spirit of 
courtesy which the character of their work should develop. 
Those who enter this profession must not be self-seeking nor 
mercenary; authorship must not be a petty occupation under- 
taken by little men with base aims. The whole attitude of 
Bayle towards authors and towards their productions shows that 
his curiosity is not the mere idle curiosity of a man who is 
concerned with the problems of philosophy and religion and 
who occasionally turns to literature because it is an interesting 
manifestation of human activity. The attraction which draws 
Bayle to literature is strong and well sustained. But it is that 
part which is least literary, least artistic — it is the part concerned 
with positive, tangible facts, which occupies him. A man of 
brains and not of feelings, whose intellectual side was highly 
developed and his artistic sense not at all, he cares most for 
letters when they touch on Realien. That any one should put 
his whole soul into a book is an idea wholly foreign to Bayle. 
A book is a thing apart from the man, an expression of his 



114 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

brain-power but not of his personality. Literature is imper- 
sonal, and not a matter of artistic expression even objective: 
for Bayle, as we have said, its connection with aesthetics is 
remote. 

His attitude towards the various genres brings this out clearly. 

Fiction is not a method of artistic idealization. At best it 
does not interest Bayle greatly, not enough to incline him to 
express any very definite opinions. All novels are alike to him ; 
the Princesse de Cleves and Ariane awaken the same amount 
of enthusiasm. The possibilities of the novel as a means of 
presenting various phases of human, breathing life, as a means 
of offering to mankind studies in life which shall lead to broader, 
saner conceptions of existence — this is nothing to our phil- 
osopher. He speaks, indeed, of truth in relation to novel writ- 
ing; his interest in truth leads him to demand attention to 
vraisemblance and to demand it with some insistence. But 
verity, for him, is positive and substantial and not a conception 
in which idealizations and things felt rather than known or fully 
understood, have a place. He objects to the practice of mingling 
fiction with historical facts. His views on this point are enlight- 
ening. A conception of art that is based on truth of the tangible 
kind, but that seeks to re-present this truth in a clearer light — 
such an idea is wholly absent from Bayle's scheme of things. 
The truth of the positive sort is too sacred to be contaminated 
in such a way ; this is the only kind of truth that Bayle knows. 
He is interested in the effect that novels may have on morals, 
but it is the immediate and, so to speak, the smaller effect — 
the directly practical one — that concerns him. Does a novel 
that presents immoral facts of life lead its readers to wicked- 
ness? He is inclined to think so. Whether a novel may have 
a wider moral significance, whether it may affect rules of right- 
living less directly, but more deeply, does not occur to Bayle. 
For him the novel is a small things essentially a love story of a 
swain and his lady. The subject is to be dropped as soon as 
the pair are happily wed. Though the Princesse de Cleves in- 
terests him, he declares his disapproval of a romance that deals 
with married folk. 

It would not be fair to judge Bayle simply on the basis of 
what he thinks of fiction, to declare that he is not an artist 
merely because he fails to appreciate novels. The novel in his 



Summary of Bay le's opinions, Etc. 115 

day was still in crude form ; he had little that was really good 
by which to form his taste. But poetry, drama and oratory were 
not by any means in this early stage of development, and yet 
his opinions on these forms of artistic expression indicate the 
same point of view. 

It has been noted that to him poetry is frivolous, a jeu d' esprit. 
As Sainte-Beuve^ remarks, Bayle never tried his own hand at 
poetic composition. Certainly the product would not have been 
remarkable. Bayle is absolutely without any conception of the 
role that a poet may play. He speaks with more scorn of this 
class of writers than of any other. That a poet should ever be 
considered worthy to guide his fellows, to give them a glimpse 
of the light of the world, through the power of his own vision, 
that a Vigny should declare the poet the far-seeing pilot who 
perceives directions more readily than his mates and chooses 
a course more wisely than they — such an idea would have 
astounded Bayle. The only effect which these '* impudent versi- 
fiers " have upon their fellows is immediate and practical : their 
obscenities and impieties are demoralizing. The only good Bayle 
sees in poetry is concerned with matters of fact. A man with 
some of the feelings that impel the poet, and his brother the 
orator, may turn these to good advantage in the composition 
of a history, and add to his narrative dignity and vividness. 
Here is a glimmer of understanding. But it is rare for Bayle 
to admit any value in the possession of such feelings. A single 
remark is enough to reveal his attitude towards poetry : he states 
that a poet who has written a clever eulogy on tobacco may be 
expected to express in eloquent verse his indignation at an 
injustice.^ 

Drama interests him to the same extent as fiction and poetry. 
Dramatic poets awaken no respect. All productions attract his 
attention in a certain measure, but he cares as much for one 
as for another. Les Femmes Savantes and Psyche appeal to 
him equally, and he is quite as curious about Arlequin Prociireiir. 
The Iphigenie of Racine entertains him, so does the preface — 
he hardly knows which he likes better. He has something to 
say about the Amphitryon of Plautus, drawn to this especially, 
it may be, because the play involves details that are somewhat 

^Portraits Litteraires, I. 376. 
^ Cf . supra, p. 24, n. 12. 



ii6 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

scdbreux. He maintains that Amphitryon is not given an impor- 
tant enough place in the drama, a place fitting the role he plays. 
The principle here is a sound one, but Bayle's criticism is not 
based on the facts, for he is mistaken in his view that Amphi- 
tryon is overshadowed by Creon.^ Evidently Bayle is not suf- 
ficiently familiar with his Plautus. The artistic value of the Cid 
makes no appeal to him, and Chimene seems abominable. 

The general remarks made concerning the genre are prac- 
tical in character. What is the direct moral effect? It may be 
good or otherwise, says Bayle; something may be accomplished 
in curing the petty vices of men, or impiety and crime may be 
promoted. What is the standard for dramatic productions ? The 
taste of the people. That is, the drama is a divertissement for 
the people; they may be entertained, and incidentally improved 
in some of their minor weaknesses — a viewpoint wholly prac- 
tical and typical. Doubtless Bayle would see no value in a piece 
of dramatic writing which is not put on the stage, which does 
not aim to correct some particular error in mceurs and which 
counts only as a vivid, true and moving portrayal of human 
passions, strivings, idealizations. The truth of which Bayle 
speaks in connection with the drama is once more of a positive 
sort. Whether there is any ideal truth in a dramatic presenta- 
tion he does not ask. What he wants to know is whether his- 
torical facts have been adhered to, or whether the facts of every- 
day existence have been treated with respect. The opera has only 
one interest for Bayle, the stage effects. Music is nothing to 
him. 

Oratory is a matter of the feelings, not of the brain. Orators 
work on their own passions and appeal to the passions of the 
audience, they do not use learning or reasoning. They strive to 
dazzle, they distort the vision. With such men Bayle has 
naturally little sympathy. He accepts this state of affairs more 
from indifference than from anything else; when he makes any 
positive criticism it is unfavorable. The beauties of eloquence, 
the elan which sometimes carries away both the speaker and his 
hearers, the splendid enthusiasm which an orator may devote to 
a noble purpose — these have no charm for the dispassionate 
Bayle. 



Cf. supra, p. 32, n. 27. 



Summary of Bayle's Opinions, Etc. 117 

Style is not an artistic process for him. Beauty in style is not 
recommended, means nothing to him; the ornaments of style 
seem trifling. He advocates clearness, conciseness, correctness. 
He objects to the poverty of language, not because it limits 
man's power to express the beautiful, but because it cramps him 
in his efforts to present conceptions of things, of facts, in an 
absolutely clear, clean-cut way. Euphony is much less desirable 
than clearness. Fact is always to be given the precedence over 
beauty. 

When he speaks of individual authors it is evident once more 
that the artistic side is not what interests Bayle.* The Dic- 
tionary is decidedly meagre in its accounts of men of letters ; not 
many are mentioned, and, when they are, the stress is laid almost 
wholly on the facts of their lives, or on their various activities 
outside of literature proper. In these articles there is hardly 
any real literary criticism. Bayle's opinions on these men have 
often to be gleaned from passing remarks scattered throughout 
his works. It becomes evident that what interests him here, as 
elsewhere, is the positive side. Homer is praised especially for 
the attention he pays to vraisemblance.^ Virgil is also praised 
for vraisemhlance,^ and a good part of the criticism on this poet 
is concerned with the question of his doctrines on Hades and 
on infernal punishment."^ Virgil's use of a certain epithet is 
discussed from the point of view of accuracy ; whether illaudatiis 
was a fit and correct adjective to apply to a tyrant.^ The 
obscenities in Virgil are mentioned,^ and there is some comment 
on the license, in a similar case, which Ovid permitted himself.^" 
Besides the saletes, what occupies Bayle especially in speaking 
of the latter poet is the description of Chaos in the Metamor- 



*The next four paragraphs contain various remarks of Bayle which 
were treated in the present study in the chapter on Individual Authors. 
Since that chapter is omitted in the dissertation as here printed (cf. 
supra, Preface, p. 6) the more important references in this case are 
reproduced in footnotes. 

^O. D. III. 366; D. IV. 393, Guise (4), O; D. XL 537, Penelope, D. 

' O. D. III. 349 ; O. D. II. 488, ii. 

'O. D. III. 962-3; O. D. III. 878. 

'D. IV. 274-6, Busiris, B. 

» D. XIV. 424-5, Virgile, A. 

" D. XI. 288, Ovide, A. 



1 1 8 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

phoses;'^^ here Bayle launches into a long discussion of the 
ancients' conception of the beginning of the world. Of the other 
ancient poets there is only cursory mention. Lucretius, of course, 
occupies Bayle's attention for some time on account of his sig- 
nificance as a philosopher.^^ For Lycophron he manifests esteem, 
not on account of his poetic genius, but because he must have 
been clever to compose verse so obscure and complex.^^ 

When our author does turn from matters of fact to dis- 
cussions of the artistic values of poetic creations, he fails utterly. 
He does not understand Virgil and Homer at all. He speaks 
vi^ith as much enthusiasm of the fables of ^sop,^* as he does of 
the Greek epic. The dignity and simplicity of the ancients are 
to him a ridiculous naivete. What nonsense to represent Ulysses, 
a great hero, as a hewer of wood and builder of boats !^^ How 
absurd for Phoenix to stop and tell nursery tales to Achilles when 
he is the bearer of an important message to that warrior !^* Here 
Bayle altogether misses the point, and doubtless he is not over 
familiar with the incident of Phoenix referring to the boyhood 
days of Achilles in the effort to stir the blood of that sullen 
hero. The adventures of Dido and ^neas have nothing that is 
romantic or poetic for Bayle. He suggests that the treatment 
^neas accorded the lady was abominable.^^ And as for Dido, 
he sees nothing but a vulgar, bourgeois sentiment in her ex- 
pression : 

. . . Si quis mihi parvulus aula 

Luderet ^neas ^® 

Bayle is as little interested in the modern poets as in the 
ancient. Ronsard and Malherbe are given characteristic articles 
in the Dictionary: that is, literary criticism is almost absent. 
Marot is commented on more at length and the remarks reveal 
the uncertainty of Bayle's judgment. For him Marot is superior 
to all the sixteenth century, the Pleiad containing no poets who 
may be compared with him, and is hardly surpassed at all, except 

" D. XI. 285, Ovide. 

"D. IX. 507-33, Lucrece. 

"D. IX. 210, Lycophron (2). 

"D. VI. 282, Esope (2), G. 

"'O. D. IV. 535. 

^® Cf. supra, pp. 91-2, 

"O. D. I. 92, IV. 

^® Cf . supra, p. 92. 



Summary of Bayle's Opinions, Etc. 119 

by such men as Sarazin and Benserade.^'-^ The two seventeenth 
century poets for whom Bayle has the most esteem are Moliere^^ 
and La Fontaine ;^^ of these his high opinion is manifest. Per- 
haps it is not surprising that his choice should fall on these two, 
who are both endowed with intensely human qualities, who are 
interested in real life, and are not inclined to the filmy idealiza- 
tions for which he could have felt little sympathy. Bayle's 
judgment in praising these two is certainly commendable. But 
the freedom with which he bestows his praise betrays his lack 
of discernment. He names Boileau grand poete,^^ but is quite 
as willing to give that title to the obscure Pierre Fransz.^^ 

The prose writers interest him more, but here again the same 
tendency to turn wholly to facts is evident. In speaking of 
Plutarch he does not ask what may be the value of the Lives 
as a series of vivid pictures of the ancients, wherein their own 
human selves are brought before the reader, wherein the spirit 
of these men and of their times is made manifest. The more 
tangible things are what strike Bayle, the mistakes in fact which 
Plutarch makes,^* the intentional distorting of facts at times, ^^ a 
piece of reasoning that is evidently bad.^^ Cicero is a marvellous 
orator. But the quality of his style which impresses Bayle most 
is its clearness.2^ The work of Cicero which brings forth the 
most comment is the Letters,"^^ and in them what interests him 
above all is the historical feature, the references to actual or 
probable occurrences. Considerable comment is given the his- 
torians and Bayle has a high respect for men like Livy,^^ Sue- 
tonius^*' and Tacitus.^^ To the modem prose writers he pays 
much more attention than to the modern poets. His criticisms 



"D. X. 313, Marot. 

'"D. XII. 252-64, Poquelin; O. D. I. L. 22; Gigas, 72. 

^'D. VI. 283, Esope (2), G; O. D. I. 374, viii. 

^'D. II. 419, Arnauld (4), T. 

'^O. D. I. L. 140, xciii. 

'*D. VIII. 513, Junon, T; D. V. 200, Cimon, H. 

"D. I. 164, AchiUe (2), M. 

"* D. IX. 2Z2, Lycurgue, H. 

" O. D. I. 169. 

=« O. D. I. 55, vii. 

^O. D. I. L. 3Z', O. D. III. II, V. 

~D. XIII. 547, Suetone. 

"^ D. XIV 7, Tacite. 



I20 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

are of the stereotyped variety in many cases, but he has a genu- 
ine esteem for men like Balzac^^ who have done much to clarify 
French style, and for thinkers and savants like Montaigne,^^ Fon- 
tenelle,^* Saint-Evremond,^^ La Mothe Le Vayer,^^ Patin^^ and 
Menage.^^ 

The interest which Bayle takes in manifestations of literary 
activity other than those mentioned — in genres other than poetry, 
oratory and the like — simply brings additional evidence to prove 
that he was an intellectual and not an artist. 

History is a matter of facts for him, a chronicle of the things 
done by men in their various political relations. He insists^ to 
be sure, upon investigation into causes; with any superficial list 
of dates and happenings he is not content. But, in the last 
analysis, history is still such a list, although lengthened and 
completed and with the interrelations of the various facts to some 
extent established. Bayle has no notion of going still further, 
of getting at the ideas which lie back of the various groups of 
facts ; it does not occur to him to treat history in a broader way, 
to treat of the meaning of religious, philosophical, literary and 
humanitarian ideas in their relation to history. It does strike 
him indeed, as we have said above in speaking of poetry, that 
the artistic, idealistic sense of a poet or an orator may be helpful 
to a historian, may lend vividness and dignity to his writing. 
But he does not dwell on the idea at any length and does not 
explain exactly what he means; it is not certain that he sees 
here anything more than a somewhat superficial advantage. He 
suggests that the artist's sense helps in the presentation of the 
historical material, he does not say whether that feeling enables 
him to approach a historical subject with more understanding 
and grasp its significance more completely. As to style, the prime 
requisite is clearness. Vividness is desirable — doubtless because 
it enables the historian to make his facts more positive and real. 
Certainly it is the substantial, tangible element that attracts Bayle. 

'=^D. III. 67, Balzac (2). 

^D. VI. 260, Ermite, I. 

^O. D. I. 547- 

^ O. D. III. 535-6. 

*' D. XIV. 303, Vayer, K. 

" D. XI. 444, Patin. 

^ D. X. 398, Menage. 



Summary of Bayle's Opinions, Etc. 121 

For scholarship, of course, his enthusiasm is marked. Here 
we are still more in the realm of facts. It is to be noted how our 
author's interest increases as we get away from the region of 
ideals and approach Realien. As a scholar himself Bayle was 
indefatigable. Scholarship he defends vigorously against its 
would-be detractors. He lays down precepts with nothing of the 
nonchalant manner which characterized his criticisms in fiction, 
poetry and like fields. Here is something really worthy of occu- 
pying his attention; a calling at which a man may spend many 
long years with profit to himself and to his fellows. 

Manifestly Bayle is less interested in art than in facts. The 
cool, hard-thinking philosopher of Rotterdam had little enthusi- 
asm for the beautiful, and little understanding of it. But to say 
he lacks artistic sense is not to say he lacks keenness : clever and 
discerning he undoubtedly is. 

The rules for reading which he lays down for the edification 
of his brother are admirable ; they show that Bayle believes in a 
careful, thoughtful, discriminating perusal of books. It is use- 
less to read, he says, unless the ideas of an author are under- 
stood in their full significance; a hasty, superficial examination 
brings no profit. 

In view of the enormous amount of Bayle's reading, and in 
view of the nature of the Nouvelles, where notices of many books 
were given each month, it seems likely that he himself was far 
from a slow reader. He had to cover ground rapidly — and un- 
doubtedly he was able to do so. Sainte-Beuve is eminently just 
in according him the quick sagacity characteristic of a journalist. 
The ready accuracy of the criticisms in the Nouvelles testify to 
Bayle's ability to pick out, in an instant, the good and the bad 
points of a production. His skill, too, in giving a brief summary 
of the contents of a book, so that every salient feature is brought 
before the reader, indicates the ease with which he grasped the 
significance of a piece of work. Few of the notices in the Nou- 
velles deal with books from the point of view of their artistic 
worth, and where they do it is evident that Bayle's comments 
are not particularly valuable. But the excellence of his criti- 
cisms where matters of fact are concerned, where it is a question 
of historical truth, or of positive reasoning in philosophy, religion, 
science — the value of these is indisputable. And when Bayle 



122 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

takes up literary topics from the matter of fact side, the same 
discermnent is noteworthy. In Uterature, as well as elsewhere, 
he is a keen thinker. 

He sees at once the clumsiness of which Plutarch is guilty in 
the course of his argument concerning the advantages of study 
to women. He understands that a dramatist needs to draw cer- 
tain lines with a heavy pencil in his portrayal of character, so 
as to call the attention of the audience to particular traits. He 
well understands that there is in comedy an element which is 
universal and an element which is local, and that, in rendering 
judgment, this fact must not be lost sight of. He appreciates 
exactly the force of La Rochefoucauld's maxims, their keen- 
cutting quality, the esprit, the suggestion of malice and mis- 
anthropy which permeates them and which is apt to develop in 
the reader a similar spirit. Homer's description of Helen makes 
a particular appeal to him, the description wherein there is no 
attempt to portray her beauty, feature by feature, but merely a 
reference to the impression she makes on the Trojan counsellors. 
Bayle perceives the force of leaving the details to the reader's 
imagination, and feels that Helen must indeed have been mar- 
velously fair. He sees the poor taste of over-crowding a poem 
with minute references to fable and antiquity. He appreciates 
the fact that the charm of a satire lies in its subtlety, in the 
cleverness of the veiled allusions. He well understands that 
language is inadequate, a poor instrument which often fails 
to give to man's conceptions a clear and satisfactory expression. 

The precepts laid down for historical and scholarly work are 
sound. The thoroughness advocated is of the discriminating 
kind. Great attention to detail is recommended but the result 
is to be something more than a mass of details ; the scholar must 
be more than a compiler, must use his brains, exercise his power 
of selection, produce a piece of work that bears evidence of a 
careful, investigating, discerning intelligence. The scholar must 
know where attention to erudite minutiae is called for and where 
it is out of place. Bayle recognizes two kinds of scholars, and 
gives the higher place to those with broad sane minds, to those 
who can put dry facts together and make a living structure of 
them, who can divine the fundamental relations of things and 
work out theories from them. 

The remarks on criticism show the same careful thinker. 



Summary of Bayle's Opinions, Etc. 123 

Bayle understands why the judgment of a few experts may be 
much superior to the opinions of a multitude of laymen who 
have no intimate acquaintance with the details involved in the 
production of some piece of work. He dwells with considerable 
insistence on this point — although, true to his positive and matter 
of fact character, he grants there may often be practical reasons 
for following the judgment of the people. Bayle has the his- 
torical point of view to a much greater extent than his con- 
temporaries. He has some understanding of how methods of 
literary expression may vary according to time and environment. 
He sets forth no formal doctrine on the subject, but he has 
thought about it, and his powers of perception have enabled him 
to see that temps and milieu are undoubtedly factors of impor- 
tance in the matter of literary production. He perceives this 
more than a century before Taine and Hennequin. 

No mean critic, then, is Bayle. Certainly his comments are 
sometimes enlightening and sometimes reveal a fine understand- 
ing of what he has to criticise. Furthermore these comments 
bring out various characteristics which are typical of him in all 
fields. 

That he interests himself in everything, that his curiosity is 
universal, is apparent. The very fact that he pays so much 
attention to things literary proves this — so much attention to a 
kind of intellectual activity which would hardly be in the province 
of the philosopher and controversialist. The long list of indi- 
vidual authors about whom he has some comment to offer shows 
how writers of all sorts attracted his attention. And the state- 
ments which he makes on the subject of how many books he 
reads and how he skips from one to another are, in themselves, 
enough to demonstrate his remarkable avidity for knowledge in 
whatever form. 

It is evident, too, that Bayle is no respecter of tradition, of 
authority and set rules. He launches boldly into discussions of 
the general value of a method of literary expression, and when 
he thinks a genre is frivolous he speaks freely. No reverence 
for the great masters of verse holds him back either in discussing 
their art as a whole, or their individual productions. He accepts 
the standard judgment of Homer as the greatest of all bards, but 
he does not hesitate to censure him with vigor. Virgil is a great 
poet, but he has numerous faults which Bayle bluntly brings up. 



124 ^^ Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

Boileau is the great poet of his time, but Hke the rest has weak- 
nesses. In no case does Bayle set up any man as his literary 
hero, in no case does tradition, reputation, reverence or anything 
else keep him from declaring his opinion without constraint. 

The ancients inspire no awe. Their ideas in many things are 
absurd, their mythology is nonsense. Bayle is fair towards them ; 
he does not hesitate to pay honor where he thinks honor due. 
But where it strikes him that the literary worth of some classic 
production is slight, he says so; he is by no means subject to the 
" malady " of those who think that anything found in one of the 
ancient authors is right. Indeed, in the differences between the 
Ancient and Modern camps, he leans to the moderns; without 
taking sides definitely he shows that in that direction lie his 
sympathies. 

The remarks on scholarship and on history indicate the same 
lack of respect for tradition, the same tendency to doubt, the 
same manifestation of Bayle's great characteristic, his scepticism. 
Facts of learning, facts of history, are not to be accepted as such, 
unless there is ample reason to believe in them. The names of 
the greatest historians do not inspire such respect that he hesi- 
tates on occasion to criticise them. The greatest savants make 
mistakes ; Bayle is not willing to take their word for a fact 
when he can control the sources himself. In history tradition 
carries no conviction, indeed it is one of the surest methods of 
handing down falsehoods. With Bayle no long list of authorities 
and great names suffices to counterbalance the weight of docu- 
mentary evidence. 

It has been pointed out by writers on Bayle that the universal 
scepticism which was characteristic of him resulted in a universal 
spirit of tolerance equally typical. The fact is particularly evi- 
dent in the criticism here dealt with. This inclination to doubt 
which is so manifest in Bayle in matters of history and learning, 
is always accompaned by a readiness to be tolerant. It is per- 
missible, he says, for scholars to engage in disputes among 
themselves, indeed it is desirable, for such disputes often lead 
to advances in knowledge. But fairness and respect for the 
opinions of others must characterize such discussions; there is 
no excuse for them unless conducted in a gentlemanly spirit. 
Nowhere does Bayle insist on tolerance with more vigor than 
in the remarks on history. He treats of partiality more fully 



Summary of Bayle's Opinions, Etc. 125 

than of any other phase of the subject, he discusses the wide- 
spread practice of being partial and the way prejudice is mani- 
fested in the historian, in the witnesses on whom he has to call, 
and in the reading public. He deplores every manifestation of 
this evil. He grants the extreme difficulty of being impartial 
and does not expect that it will be possible to avoid all bias. But 
the effort to do this he sets up as the historian's First Com- 
mandment. 

No attitude could be more tolerant than that recommended by 
Bayle in his remarks on criticism. A critic shall make every 
effort to treat his author with all fairness, shall show every 
consideration for him, shall find out exactly his aims and the 
circumstances under which he writes. When this is done the 
critic may speak freely. And the author in question is to exercise 
tolerance on his side, is to recognize the fair and equitable spirit 
which prompts the remarks and accept them as such. 

Bayle is a free lance, whose activity carries him into all fields 
of literature, whose bold liberal spirit prompts him to criticise 
everything that comes under his hand. His keenness enables him 
to see the weak point in every opinion, the uncertain basis upon 
which all of man's ideas are founded. His innate sense of jus- 
tice makes him realize that it is not fair for an individual to 
declare false all views except his own. The opinions of one's 
neighbor may be quite as good, and certainly are to be respected. 
In literature as elsewhere Bayle is the universal doubter and the 
universal tolerant. 



XII 

Influence of Bayle 

The influence of Bayle on the following age is far-reaching. 
Many of the ideas of the eighteenth century may be directly traced 
to him. No study of the refugee at Rotterdam would be com- 
plete without a reference to that influence, and the present dis- 
sertation may well conclude with a brief mention of how his 
precepts, those on literature among the rest, were spread through- 
out Europe. 

In his own day the role which Bayle played was most impor- 
tant. His activity is astonishing. He conducted courses at 
Rotterdam, produced his big folios, and at the same time kept 
up an enormous correspondence with learned scholars. His 
books were published at London, Geneva, The Hague and Rot- 
terdam; friends and enemies in England, Germany, France, 
Switzerland and Holland were interested in his work. Boileau 
took pleasure in reading the Dictionary,^ Saint-Evremond held its 
author in high esteem,^ La Fontaine admired him.^ William III 
considered him enough of a power to be dangerous. Christina 
of Sweden deigned to quarrel with him over certain of his re- 
marks. Efforts were made to reconvert him to the Roman faith, 
for his value as an ally was recognized. Three English Lords, 
the Earls of Shaftsbury, of Albemarle and of Huntington offered 
Bayle patronage, but he was unwilling to relinquish the freedom 
of his life at Rotterdam and preferred to keep busily at work in 
his own study. 

The products of this assiduous labor were received by the 
public with unusual enthusiasm. The Nouvelles were in demand 

'O. D. IV. 772. 

^Cf. Cazes, 73. Cf. also CEuvres Melees de Saint-Evremond, Paris, 
Techener fils, 1865, Vol. II, p. 513, note i. Saint-Evremond's sympathy 
for Bayle is evident from the sarcastic response which he imagines 
Bayle writing to the criticism of Renaudot. {ibid. pp. 513-16,) 

*Cf. Cazes, 71. Cf. La Fontaine, CEuvres, Paris, Hachette, 1892. 
Vol. IX, p. 369. (Lettre a M. Simon de Troyes.) 



Influence of Bayle 127 

all over Europe. The Dictionary was so immediately popular 
that soon after it began to appear the printer had to change his 
plans and print many extra copies. The first edition was 
promptly followed by a second. In 1720, after the author's 
death, came a third. From 1697 to 1741, in a period of forty- 
four years, nine editions of the Dictionary appeared — surely 
an imposing list. During the Regency the Dictionary was so 
greatly sought after that, in their anxiety to peruse the volumes, 
zealous students used to form in line at the doors of the Biblio- 
theque Mazarine. The Pensees were hardly less popular. From 
1682 to 1704, four editions were published, and that in the 1737 
edition of the (Euvres Diverses is the seventh. 

Various attacks on Bayle's writings undoubtedly helped to call 
attention to them. The Critique Generate was burned at the 
Place de Greve by the Paris executioner. The proclamation 
against the book was written by Maimbourg himself and was 
couched in the most violent terms ; the three thousand copies of 
this diatribe spread broadcast through Paris were calculated to 
impel all men to inspect for themselves the pernicious work.* 
Public interest was whetted by further persecutions. The state's 
authority was brought to bear against the Pensees, and the pub- 
lication of the Dictionary in France was strictly forbidden. As 
late as 1750, certain zealots at Colmar, Germany, inspired by a 
Jesuit father, indulged in an auto da fe during which a number 
of copies of the Dictionary were consigned to the flames.^ 

If other evidence were lacking, the remarks of certain eight- 
eenth century writers alone would indicate the influence of 
Bayle and show that his ideas had taken firm hold. To Voltaire 
he is Veternel honneur de la race humaine:^ Voltaire testifies 
frequently to his admiration. He regrets, indeed, that the Dic- 
tionary should not be reduced to a single volume from which 
innumerable articles of little use might be omitted and wherein 
the style might be chastened and polished."^ He grants also that 
his hero knew nothing of physics and that his understanding of 
philosophy was deficient. But after all the Dictionary is inimita- 

* Cf . Disraeli, Curiosities of Literature, III, 142-3, 
''Cf. Betz, 128, and the reference in Betz to Voltaire. 
'Voltaire, (Ekvres Completes, Paris, Gamier Freres, 1877, Vol. VII, 
P- 477- 
' Id. Vol. XXXV, 288. 



128 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

ble.'' Furthermore, the periodical genre was perfected when 
the Nouvelles were pubHshed.*^ As a man of learning, as a keen 
and profound reasoner, Bayle is deserving of the highest com- 
mendation. He has a mighty power of exact and careful analysis 
and, even in the case of the most ordinary intelligence, he is 
able to stimulate thought. ^^ 

The comments of others, although not always friendly, testify 
to Bayle's force. Diderot does not by any means agree with all 
his doctrines, but there is no doubt of the respect he feels for 
Bayle's contribution to the development of the world's ideas. He 
is an astonishing man, declares Diderot, in paying him the fol- 
lowing tribute : 

Bayle eut peu d'egaux dans I'art de raisonner, peut-etre point de 
superieur. Personne ne sut saisir plus subtilement le f aible d'un systeme ; 
personne n'en sut faire valoir plus f ortement les avantages ; redoutable 
quand il prouve; plus redoutable encore quand il objecte: doue d'une 
imagination gaie et feconde en meme temps qu'il prouve, il amuse, il 
peint, il seduit." 

The encyclopedist speaks of the remarkable popularity of the 
Critique Generale, and says the comet of 1680 was made famous 
by the Pensees. Louis Racine's attack on Bayle in the Epitre a 
M. Rousseau shows that even where his influence was detested 
it was still potent.^2 Frederick the Great was familiar with our 
author's works and absorbed his ideas on tolerance and on the 
separation of morals from religious dogma.^^ He himself pre- 
pared an Extrait du Dictionnaire de Bayle, in which he placed 
those philosophic articles that he considered especially good, and 
for which he wrote a commendatory preface.^* 

Viewed then merely from the material standpoint, from the 
number of editions of Bayle's works, from the facts of his 
activity and his relations with the great Europeans of his day, 



' Id. Vol. XIV, 37-9- 

*• Id. Vol. XIV, 132. 

^°Id. Vol. XXXIII, 568; Vol. XXIV, 274- 

" Diderot, (Euvres Completes, Paris, Garnier Freres, 1876. Vol. XVI, 
p. 490 (Encyclopedie, Article Pyrrhoniene). 

^^L. Racine, (Euvres, Paris, Le Norm.ant, 1808. Vol. II, p. 95. Vol- 
taire speaks with particular acerbity of the partiality of Racine in his 
attack on Bayle; XVII, 553-5, Dictionnaire Philosophique, Article: Bayle. 

"Cf. Betz, 127-8. 

"Voltaire, (Euvres, XLIV, 202, note i. 



Influence of Bayle 129 

from the definitely expressed opinions of the eighteenth century, 
it is sure that he was long a power. The way this power was 
exerted, the connection of Bayle's ideas with those of the fol- 
lowing age, may be seen in a variety of cases. There are a 
number of tendencies for which he may to some extent be con- 
sidered responsible. 

After the seventeenth century, with its devotion to art, there 
came a reaction. The following century was not artistic, was 
not distinguished for its taste, placed emphasis on the power of 
the intelligence and not on aesthetic discernment, produced com- 
paratively little that ranks high in la litterature toiite pure. The 
interest of the age was in philosophy, in the sciences, in sociolog- 
ical problems, and not at all in art and beauty. 

Bayle's literary criticism offers the clearest evidence of the 
early leanings in this direction. It has been seen that his chief 
characteristic here was his positive, matter-of-fact attitude, his 
failure to appreciate the aesthetic value of a book, and his in- 
clination to judge it merely as an intellectual effort. No point 
of view could be more distinctly of the eighteenth century. In 
judging those features that make an appeal to the intelligence, 
Bayle is keen enough. So the eighteenth century: intellectually 
powerful as well as artistically weak. It seems undoubted that 
Bayle's tendencies were a factor in the development of the fol- 
lowing century. 

Another essential difference between the seventeenth and the 
eighteenth centuries lies in their attitude towards authority — and 
here again our author's influence is evident. The seventeenth 
century stood especially for tradition and precedent. In religion, 
divine and ecclesiastic authority held sway. Whatever the 
wrangling among Jesuits, Jansenists, Quietists, Catholics and 
Protestants, their differences were differences of sect; the basic 
idea of faith was left undisturbed. In politics it was the epoch 
of the roi soleil, the voice of the people was not raised, the noble's 
power was practically nil, the monarchical spirit permeated every- 
thing. Society was an institution already fully fashioned and 
permanent; individuals indeed might change, but authority had 
set its mark upon the various groups as such, and there were no 
shifts. Literature had its dictator in Boileau. Here again, only 
within limits might individuality assert itself; there were just 
so many literary kinds, and such and such precepts for composing 



130 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

in each genre. Authority demanded that one should be a devout 
and submissive Christian, a loyal subject to absolute monarchy, 
a faithful adherent to the established principles of literary 
expression. 

The eighteenth century, and Bayle as its first representative, 
cared nothing for established principles. The spirit of tradition 
and precedent was given many a rude jolt, and at length was 
completely overturned. The French Revolution was the final 
expression of the overthrow of the idea of authority. Bayle was 
not only one of the earliest but one of the most important con- 
tributors to this movement. The general esprit critique which 
characterized his writings, the universal scepticism, has been 
noted. The freedom which he allows himself in the particular 
field of literary criticism has been pointed out at some length. 
Bayle not only examined, he attacked. The turn of mind, natur- 
ally contradictory, of this indefatigable investigator made him 
take great pleasure in denying fixed precepts, and his extraor- 
dinary keenness gave him a sure sense of their vulnerable points. 
Joined to all this w^as perhaps a certain malignity, a mischievous 
delight in perplexing the poor, unthinking, everyday reader. 
Moreover Bayle made use of his power to give interest to these 
attacks. The digressions, the easy manner in which he passed 
from one subject to another, relieving a theological doctrine with 
a bit of raillery, introducing an amusing story or a salete — ^these 
attracted readers and held their attention to books which seemed 
most unusual and which presented strange, compelling arguments 
against the established conceptions they had been born to and had 
always accepted. 

In matters of erudition, too, the freedom of thought so char- 
acteristic of Bayle exerted its influence on the following century. 
It has been seen that in the field of scholarship and history he 
was far from being awe-struck by great names, that he was 
always inclined to doubt, to demand substantial documentary evi- 
dence. Such independence of judgment was as foreign to the 
seventeenth century as it was distinctly characteristic of the fol- 
lowing period. Bayle is the connecting link. The Dictionary 
spread this conception among the writers of the next age. Even 
in the attention paid to minute details of erudition its author 
foreshadows the eighteenth century. He helps develop the tend- 
ency to consider the little facts, which are petty in themselves. 



Influence of Bayle 131 

but which sometimes lead to enormous consequences. A his- 
torian like Voltaire, who looks on such tiny sparks as capable 
of kindling tremendous conflagrations, has evidently felt the 
influence of Bayle. 

Even in the methods pursued by Bayle in presenting his revo- , 
lutionary principles, his influence is noteworthy. It was danger- 
ous in his time and indeed later to speak with such extraordinary 
freedom on matters of religion, morals and learning. It was 
long necessary to conciliate the ruling powers, or at least to avoid ' 
offending them. Our author had his own scheme for doing this : 
he scattered his revolutionary remarks in such a way that on no 
single page could there be found enough evidence to damn him 
as a seditious writer. Potent doctrines are discovered tucked 
away in the most unexpected places, in notes where no censor 
would look for them. It is precisely this method which is em- 
ployed by the eighteenth century and advocated by Diderot in 
his article on encyclopedia writing.^'' 

The direct influence of Bayle as a journalist is considerable. 
We have noted the distinctive marks of the N ouvelles, and espe- 
cially Bayle's attitude as editor. The universal character of the 
periodical, the enormous range of subjects, the interest in all 
fields of intellectual activity and the desire to bring all these 
things to the attention of the reading public, and to stimulate, in 
this public, a liking for information and for thinking — such are 
the traits that lead Betz to style the Nouvelles the erste populdr- 
zvissenschaftliche Zeitschrift. It is certain that later journalists 
understood the value of the Nouvelles as a model. It is also 
certain that the impartiality displayed in conducting this work, 
the absolute freedom from bias and the refusal to seek patronage, 
offered to editors a noble example. 

Needless to say, while there are so many traits which our 
author had in comm.on with the eighteenth century and a num- 
ber of lines along which he influenced the next age, in some 
respects he differed radically from his successors He would not 
always have recognized his descendants. 

The eighteenth century men were distinctly men of action, and 
Bayle was not. They associated their thoughts and the practical 
consequences, and he did not. He was a quiet, sedentary person 
who delighted to live in his study and took no hand in the 

"Cf. Brunetiere, Etudes Critiques, V, 167, ff, 



132 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

affairs of the world. He was interested in truth for truth's 
sake; he did not study its bearing on the details of everyday 
existence. Voltaire, Diderot and their contemporaries were con- 
cerned with social and political problems and their compositions 
had a real, practical significance. They were hot-blooded enthusi- 
asts who stood stoutly by their principles and were not sparing 
in villification of their adversaries. Bayle, calm and dispassion- 
ate, was far from having confidence in the value of his own 
ideas, he was inconsistent and admitted it, he was gentle in 
his censures. Not practical and not an enthusiast, his writings, 
whatever their attractions, lacked the interest awakened by an 
author who espouses his cause with warmth and positiveness. 
The eighteenth century did not sympathize with such a nonchalant 
attitude. 

Other points of difference are marked. What few opinions 
Bayle had on politics were monarchical. Doubtless his own 
habits of life had something to do with this ; a lover of peace and 
quiet and of opportunity for study, he would not relish the idea 
of political upsets, he would prefer the feeling of certainty in- 
spired by such an absolute monarch as Louis XIV. The theories 
of republican government he was inclined to look on as pretexts 
for the bullyings of demagogues. It is unnecessary to comment 
on the different point of view which characterized the eighteenth 
century. Furthermore Bayle was not at all a man of science, 
and his knowledge of the natural sciences was especially 
meagre. The eighteenth century devoted much of its energy 
to science and based thereon many of its most aggressive 
doctrines. There is none of this interest in Bayle. And he is 
far from paying the cult to reason so typical of the eighteenth 
century. He overturns authority on the basis of reason, he 
appeals to reason to support his independence and freedom of 
thought, but, after all, he concludes that reason too is a poor 
thing. To him reason is far from a goddess. 

Bayle, then, is like and unlike the eighteenth century. Living 
himself in the seventeenth century and in the midst of its ideas, 
the position he took was distinctly radical ; he was most certainly 
a forerunner of the later period, and his influence was most 
certainly powerful. At the same time he does not really belong 
to either age ; he is rather a connecting link between the two 
epochs, and, as such, his position is of great significance. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

I. Works by Bayle. 

Dictionnaire Historique et Critique^ (ed. Beuchot). Paris, Desoer, 1820. 
16 vols. 8 vo. 

CEuvres Uiverses, contenant tout ce que cet auteur a publie . 
excepts son Dictionnaire . . .^ La Haye, 1737. 4 vols., fol. 

De Bude, E. (ed.) : Lettres Inedites adressees de 1686 a 1731 a J. -A. 
Turrettini, theologien genevois. Paris et Geneve, 1887. 3 vols., 12 mo. 

Charavay, E. (ed.) : Une Lettre inedite de Pierre Bayle. 
In : L' Amateur d'Autographes, 15 Septembre, 1898. 

d'Eichtal, E. (ed.) : Une Lettre inedite de Bayle. 

In : Revue d'Histoire Litteraire de la France, 1909, pp. 352-3- 

Gigas, Emile (ed.) : Choix de la Correspondance Inedite de Pierre 
Bayle. Copenhague, J. E. C. Gad, 1890. 

Ph. Tamizey de Larroque (ed.) : Une Lettre inedite de Bayle. 
In : Revue d'Histoire Litteraire de la France, 1894, pp. 430-32. 

Pelissier, L. G. (ed.) : Quelques Lettres de Bayle et de Baluze. 
In: Annales du Midi, 1891, pp. 21-59. 

Pelissier, L. G. (ed.) : Lettres de Divers Ecrivains Frangais. 
In: Bulletin du Bibliophile, 15 Mars, 1906. 

Volney, H. (ed.) : Une Lettre inedite de Bayle. Un Poeme frangais a 
la memoire de Bayle. 

In : Revue d'Ardenne et d'Argonne, Juin, 1900. 

Waddington, Francis (ed.) : Memoires Inedits de Jean Ron. Paris, 
Societe de I'Histoire du Protestantisme Frangais, 1857. 



^ Referred to as " D " in the present study. Besides volume and 
page, article and note are given in order to facilitate locating the refer- 
ences in other editions. Where several articles bear the same name, 
the one referred to is identified by a following numeral. 

^ Referred to as " O. D." in the present study. Where on a single 
page in the O. D. there is more than one chapter, section or letter, the 
reference is made more definite by adding the Roman numeral which 
indicates the particular division. The collection of letters in the first 
volume, which has a separate pagination, is referred to as " O. D 
I. L." 



134 The Literary Criticism of Pierre Bayle 

II. Works on Bayle. 

Arabet, Rene: Discours a f inauguration du monument Pierre Bayle. 
Toulouse, 1905. 

Bastide, Ch. : Bayle est-il I'aufeur de I "Avis aux Refugies'^f 
In: Bulletin de la Societe de I'Histoire du Protestantisme Frangais, 
1907, pp. 544-558. 

Betz, Louis P. : Pierre Bayle und die " Nouvelles de la Republique 
des Lettres." Zurich, Albert Muller, 1896. 

Brunetiere, F. : Etudes Critiques sur I'Histoire de la Litterature Fran- 
gaise. Cinquieme Serie, Paris, Hachette, 1893. 

Brunetiere, F. : La Formation de I'Esprit Encyclopediste. 
In : Revue Hebdomadaire, 9 et 16 Nov. 1907. 

Cazes, Albert: Pierre Bayle, sa vie, ses idees, son influence, son ceuvre, 
Paris, Dujarric et O^, 1905. 

Disraeli, Isaac : Curiosities of Literature. Boston, William Veazie, 
1858. 

Douen, O. : Un Opuscle de Bayle. 

In: Bulletin de la Societe de I'Histoire du Protestantisme Frangais, 
T^^77, pp. 94-95- 

Faguet, Emile : Dix-huitieme Siecle. Paris, Societe Frangaise d'lm- 
primerie et de Librairie, 1898. 

Haag, Eugene et Emile: La France Protestante. Paris, Librarie San- 
doz et Fischbacher, 1877. Article on Bayle (by H. Bordier), Vol. I. col. 
1055 ff- 

Janet, Paul: Notice sur des Lettres inedites de Bayle. 
In: Seances et Travaux de I' Academic des Sciences Morales et Poli- 
tiques, Compte-Rendu, Juin, 1875. 

Kent, Henry W. : Pierre Bayle's Dictionary. 
In: Library Journal, Vol. 36, No. i, Jan. 1911. 

Lanson, Gustave : Origines et premieres manifestations de I'esprit 
philosophiqiie dans la litterature frangaise de 1675 a 1748. 
In : Revue des Cours et Conferences, Paris, 1907-8. 

Lenient, C. : Etude sur Bayle. Paris, chez Madame Ve Joubert, 1855. 

Picavet, F. : Bayle. Article in La Grande Encyclopedic. 

Rossel, Vergile: Histoire de la Litterature Frangaise hors de France. 
Paris, Alfred Schlachter. 



Bibliography 135 

Rougerie : Bayle le Sceptique et la tolerance d Pamiers en 1898. 
Pamiers, 1898. 

Sainte-Beuve, C. A. : Portraits Litteraires, I. Paris, Garnier Freres, 
1862. 

Sainte-Beuve, C. A. : Nouveaux Lundis, IX. Paris, Michel Levy 
Freres, 1867. 

Sayous, A. : Histoire de la Litterature Frangaise a I'Etranger. Paris, 
Cherbuliez, 1853.' 

Schoell, Th. : Pierre Bayle, a propos de deux Hvres recents. 
In : Btilletin de la Societe de I'Histoire du Protestantisme Frangais, 
1908, pp. 359-375- 

Sheldon, F. : Pierre Bayle. 

In: North American Review, Vol. CXI, 1870, p. 377 ff. 

Souquet, Paul : Pierre Bayle, Libre Penseur et politique. 
In: La Revolution Frangaise, Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contem- 
poraine. Vol. XVIII, 1890, pp. 97-124; 210-231. 

Vinet, Alexandre: Moralistes des XVI^ et XVIIe Siecles. Paris, 1859. 



' Vol. I, p. 238, contains a quotation from an inedited letter of Bayle. 



VITA 

I, Horatio Elwin Smith, was born May 8, 1886, at Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts. I attended public schools in Cambridge 
and Somerville, Massachusetts, and in Brattleboro, Vermont, and 
graduated from Amherst College in 1908 with the degree of 
A. B. The three years from February, 1908 to February, 1911, 
were spent as a student of Romance Languages at the Johns 
Hopkins University. Since the last-named date I have been 
instructor in French in Yale College. The summer of 1909 was 
spent in study in Paris. 

I desire herein to express my appreciation of courses followed 
under Professors M. P. Brush, G. C. Keidel, C. C. Marden, 
J. E. Shaw, A. Terracher and F. M. Warren, and to acknowledge 
my especial indebtedness to the late Professor A. Marshall El- 
liott, to Professors Edward C. Armstrong and Phillip Ogden, and 
to Professor William A. Nitze of the University of Chicago. 






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